Benjamin Franklin: An Overview

Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 [January 6, 1705 O.S.] – April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence, and the first United States Postmaster General.

Franklin’s achievements span virtually every field of human endeavor. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove. He founded the University of Pennsylvania and the American Philosophical Society. His scientific work established him as a major figure in the Enlightenment. His writings, particularly “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” shaped American character and culture.

Printer and Writer

Franklin began as a printer’s apprentice in Boston, but after a falling out with his brother, he moved to Philadelphia in 1723 at age seventeen. He eventually established his own printing business and achieved financial success through hard work, frugality, and business acumen.

In 1733, Franklin began publishing “Poor Richard’s Almanack” under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. The almanac became enormously popular, selling 10,000 copies annually. Its maxims—“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”; “A penny saved is a penny earned”—entered American folklore and shaped the nation’s values regarding work, thrift, and self-improvement.

Franklin’s autobiography, written in several stages and published posthumously, became a classic of American literature and the archetype of the self-made American success story. It established the genre of autobiography as self-improvement manual.

Scientist and Inventor

Franklin’s scientific work made him one of the most respected scientists of the eighteenth century. His experiments with electricity, particularly the famous (and dangerous) kite experiment of 1752, established that lightning was electrical. He invented the lightning rod for protection, bifocal lenses, the Franklin stove for more efficient heating, and numerous other devices.

Franklin’s scientific method was empirical and practical. He conducted experiments, observed results, and drew conclusions without formal mathematical training. His work on electricity earned him the Copley Medal from the Royal Society and international fame. He was elected to scientific academies across Europe.

Revolutionary and Statesman

Franklin’s political career began in Philadelphia, where he served as postmaster, city council member, and eventually deputy postmaster general for the colonies. His advocacy for colonial union and his writings on colonial rights laid groundwork for the American Revolution.

As a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, Franklin served on the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolutionary War, he served as ambassador to France, securing the alliance that proved crucial to American victory. His prestige and diplomatic skill made him one of the most effective American representatives in Europe.

Franklin participated in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, though his age and gout limited his active role. His call for prayer and his final speech urging unanimous support for the Constitution demonstrated his commitment to compromise and union.

Legacy

Franklin died in Philadelphia in 1790 at age eighty-four. His funeral was attended by approximately 20,000 people. He is buried at Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia.

Franklin’s legacy is complex. He embodies American ideals of self-improvement, practicality, and middle-class virtue. Yet his ownership of slaves (though he later became an abolitionist) and his complex personal relationships complicate his image. He remains the most accessible of the Founding Fathers—witty, pragmatic, and recognizably human.

His face appears on the $100 bill, and his image pervades American culture. His writings continue to be read; his inventions remain in use; his institutions still function. Franklin exemplifies the Enlightenment belief that human reason and effort can improve both individual lives and society.

Benjamin Franklin: Early Life

Birth and Family Background

Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706 (January 6, 1705, Old Style), in Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was the fifteenth of seventeen children and the tenth son of Josiah Franklin, a candle and soap maker, and his second wife Abiah Folger. The Franklins were of modest means but respectable status—Josiah had emigrated from England in 1683 to escape religious persecution as a dissenter.

Boston in the early eighteenth century was a bustling colonial port with a population of about 10,000. The Franklin family lived in a small house on Milk Street, near the Old South Church. Young Ben was baptized there the day he was born, as his parents feared he might not survive infancy.

Childhood and Limited Formal Education

Franklin received only two years of formal schooling. His father intended him for the clergy, but the cost of education was prohibitive for such a large family. At age ten, Ben was taken out of the Boston Latin School and put to work in his father’s candle and soap shop.

The work was not to young Ben’s taste. He disliked the smell of the tallow and preferred reading to manual labor. Recognizing that his son was not suited for the chandler’s trade, Josiah took Ben around Boston to observe various craftsmen at work, hoping to find a trade that would engage him.

Meanwhile, Franklin’s love of reading grew. He read everything he could obtain, borrowing books from friends and local libraries. He particularly admired John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress” and Cotton Mather’s “Essays to Do Good.” His reading would compensate for his limited formal education and provide the foundation for his later intellectual achievements.

Apprenticeship to His Brother

At age twelve, Franklin was apprenticed to his older brother James, a printer who had recently returned from England with a printing press and types. The nine-year apprenticeship (1718-1727) provided Franklin with a trade and, more importantly, access to books and ideas.

Franklin learned the printing trade thoroughly, becoming a skilled compositor and pressman. More valuably, the print shop provided access to newspapers, books, and political pamphlets. Franklin later recalled that he often stayed late at the shop reading, and he sometimes borrowed books overnight, returning them before anyone missed them.

The relationship between Benjamin and James was contentious. James was a stern master, and Benjamin chafed at the restrictions of apprenticeship. When James founded the “New-England Courant” in 1721, Benjamin contributed essays under the pseudonym “Silence Dogood,” a widowed woman who commented on Boston society with wit and wisdom. The essays were popular, and only later did James discover their true author.

Escape to Philadelphia

In 1722, James Franklin was imprisoned for three weeks for publishing material critical of the Massachusetts government. Benjamin continued publishing the paper during his brother’s absence. Upon James’s release, tensions between the brothers escalated.

In 1723, at age seventeen, Benjamin Franklin broke his apprenticeship and fled to Philadelphia. He carried little money and few possessions but possessed his printing skills and boundless ambition. The journey involved a boat to New York and then travel overland to Philadelphia, where he arrived hungry, tired, and bedraggled.

Franklin’s first day in Philadelphia became legendary. He bought three puffy rolls (bread), ate one while walking, gave two to a mother and child he met, and eventually found his way to a Quaker meeting house where he slept. This image of the young, hungry, ambitious Franklin arriving in Philadelphia became part of American founding mythology.

Early Philadelphia Years

Franklin quickly found work in Philadelphia’s printing shops and made a favorable impression on the city’s leading citizens. Governor Sir William Keith took an interest in the young printer and encouraged him to go to London to purchase equipment to establish his own shop. Keith promised letters of credit to fund the venture.

In 1724, Franklin sailed for London, but Keith’s letters of credit never materialized. Stranded in London with no means to return, Franklin found employment at Samuel Palmer’s printing house. He spent eighteen months in London, working, reading, and observing English society. This experience broadened his horizons and refined his printing skills.

London in the 1720s was the world’s largest city and the center of English intellectual life. Franklin attended theaters, read widely, and developed the sophisticated style that would characterize his later writing. He also engaged in romantic relationships and narrowly avoided making an imprudent marriage.

Return to Philadelphia and Marriage

Franklin returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with a wealth of experience and a determination to succeed. He worked in various printing shops before going into business for himself in 1728, in partnership with Hugh Meredith. When Meredith’s father withdrew financial support, Franklin bought out his partner and became sole proprietor.

Franklin’s personal life stabilized when he entered a common-law marriage with Deborah Read in 1730. Deborah had been engaged to Franklin before his London trip, but had married another man in his absence. When her husband deserted her, she and Franklin resumed their relationship. They could not legally marry because Deborah’s first husband’s fate was uncertain, but they lived as husband and wife and had two children.

Their son Francis Folger Franklin was born in 1732 but died of smallpox at age four. Daughter Sarah (Sally) was born in 1743 and survived to adulthood. Franklin also had an illegitimate son, William, born around 1730, whose mother is unknown. William would become the last royal governor of New Jersey and, during the Revolution, a Loyalist, causing a permanent estrangement from his father.

The Development of Character

In his early Philadelphia years, Franklin consciously worked on self-improvement. He developed a plan for moral perfection, listing thirteen virtues (temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility) and attempting to practice each in turn.

This systematic approach to self-improvement reflected Enlightenment faith in human perfectibility through reason and effort. Franklin was never as virtuous as he claimed in his autobiography—he was ambitious, sometimes unscrupulous, and certainly not humble—but the attempt at self-cultivation shaped his character.

Franklin also organized a “Junto” in 1727—a club of young working men dedicated to mutual improvement and community service. The Junto discussed politics, philosophy, and practical schemes for improving Philadelphia. Many of Franklin’s civic improvements—libraries, fire companies, hospitals—originated in Junto discussions.

Success as Printer and Publisher

By his late twenties, Franklin had achieved the success he sought. His print shop produced books, pamphlets, and currency for colonial governments. In 1733, he began publishing “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” which became enormously popular and profitable. The almanac’s maxims about thrift and industry made Franklin’s name synonymous with middle-class virtue.

Franklin’s success was based on hard work, business acumen, and strategic thinking. He cultivated relationships with influential Philadelphians, invested his profits wisely, and gradually built a business empire that included printing shops in multiple colonies. By his forties, he was wealthy enough to retire from active business and devote himself to science and public service.

Psychological Formation

Franklin’s early life shaped the man who would become one of America’s most influential figures. His limited formal education made him self-reliant and skeptical of traditional authority. His apprenticeship taught him the value of practical skills and gave him access to ideas. His escape from Boston demonstrated his willingness to break with convention and take risks.

The combination of ambition and insecurity, of desire for respectability and independence, of pragmatism and idealism, characterized Franklin throughout his life. His early struggles taught him that success came through hard work and careful management. His reading gave him intellectual tools and cultural aspirations. His experiences in London broadened his perspective beyond colonial limitations.

Franklin emerged from his early years as a self-made man, confident in his abilities and determined to make his mark on the world. The qualities he developed—industry, frugality, curiosity, sociability—would serve him well in the diverse careers that followed: printer, writer, scientist, inventor, and statesman.

Benjamin Franklin: Career

Printer and Publisher (1723-1748)

Franklin began his career as a printer’s apprentice in Boston, but after a falling out with his brother James, he fled to Philadelphia in 1723 at age seventeen. After working in London and returning to Philadelphia, Franklin established his own printing business in 1728.

Franklin’s printing business prospered through a combination of hard work, quality production, and strategic business practices. He printed currency for several colonies, government documents, books, and pamphlets. By his late thirties, Franklin had achieved financial independence.

In 1730, Franklin became the official printer for Pennsylvania, a lucrative government contract. He established printing partnerships in other cities, effectively creating a colonial printing network. By 1748, at age forty-two, Franklin was wealthy enough to retire from active business.

Poor Richard’s Almanack (1733-1758)

Franklin’s most famous publication was “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” first published in 1733 under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. The almanac combined practical information (weather forecasts, tide tables, calendar) with maxims and proverbs that became part of American folklore.

The almanac sold up to 10,000 copies annually, making it one of colonial America’s best-selling publications. Its maxims—“Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”; “A penny saved is a penny earned”; “God helps those who help themselves”—shaped American values regarding work, thrift, and self-reliance.

Franklin used the almanac to disseminate Enlightenment values in accessible form. He combined practical advice with moral instruction, promoting the virtues of industry, frugality, and honesty as paths to success.

Civic Leadership in Philadelphia

Franklin’s business success enabled civic engagement. He founded or organized: - The Library Company of Philadelphia (1731), America’s first subscription library - The Union Fire Company (1736), Philadelphia’s first fire brigade - The American Philosophical Society (1743), for scientific exchange - The Philadelphia Academy (1749), which became the University of Pennsylvania - Pennsylvania Hospital (1751), the first hospital in the British colonies

These institutions reflected Franklin’s belief that self-governing communities could solve their own problems through organized voluntary action. They became models for civic improvement throughout America.

Franklin also served in various municipal offices, including city council member, postmaster, and clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly. His civic career prepared him for larger political responsibilities.

Scientific Work (1740s-1760s)

Franklin’s scientific investigations, conducted alongside his business and political activities, made him the most famous American in Europe. His experiments with electricity were particularly significant.

In 1752, Franklin conducted his famous kite experiment, demonstrating that lightning was electrical. (Recent scholarship suggests the experiment may have been proposed rather than actually performed, but Franklin’s theoretical understanding was sound.) He invented the lightning rod for protection, which was adopted worldwide.

Franklin’s other inventions included: - The Franklin stove (1741), for more efficient heating - Bifocal lenses (1760s), for his own use - The glass armonica (1761), a musical instrument - The flexible urinary catheter - Various improvements to printing presses and other devices

Franklin never patented his inventions, believing they should benefit all humanity. His scientific work earned him the Copley Medal from the Royal Society (1753), election to the Royal Society (1756), and honorary degrees from Harvard and Yale.

Pennsylvania Politics (1751-1764)

Franklin served in the Pennsylvania Assembly from 1751 to 1764, becoming increasingly involved in colonial politics. He advocated for colonial union and defense, proposing the Albany Plan of Union (1754) to coordinate colonial defense during the French and Indian War.

The Albany Plan, though rejected by both colonial assemblies and the British government, anticipated the federal structure of the United States Constitution. Franklin’s famous “Join, or Die” cartoon, depicting a snake cut into pieces representing the colonies, became an icon of colonial unity.

Franklin’s political career in Pennsylvania ended in conflict. His proposal to make Pennsylvania a royal colony rather than a proprietary colony (owned by the Penn family) was defeated, and Franklin was defeated in the 1764 Assembly election.

Agent in London (1757-1762, 1764-1775)

Franklin spent much of the period from 1757 to 1775 in London as agent for Pennsylvania and other colonies. As agent, he represented colonial interests to the British government, seeking redress of grievances and favorable policies.

Franklin initially believed in the British Empire and sought reconciliation between Britain and the colonies. However, his experiences in London gradually convinced him that British policy was fundamentally hostile to colonial interests. The British government’s dismissive treatment of colonial petitions and the implementation of taxes and restrictions pushed Franklin toward revolutionary views.

In 1775, after the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord, Franklin returned to America, committed to independence. His transformation from loyal British subject to revolutionary was complete.

Revolutionary Period (1775-1785)

Franklin served in the Second Continental Congress and was appointed to the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Though Jefferson wrote the draft, Franklin made significant contributions, including changing “sacred and undeniable” to “self-evident” in the famous phrase about truths.

In late 1776, Congress sent Franklin to France as commissioner (later minister plenipotentiary). His mission was to secure French recognition and support for American independence. This diplomatic assignment became the most important work of Franklin’s life.

Franklin’s prestige as a scientist and philosopher gave him access to the French court and society. His simple dress and democratic manners charmed the French, who saw him as embodying American virtues. He cultivated relationships with French officials, secured secret aid, and eventually negotiated the Treaty of Alliance (1778) and Treaty of Paris (1783) recognizing American independence.

The French alliance was crucial to American victory. French financial and military support enabled Washington’s army to survive and eventually prevail. Franklin’s diplomatic skill in securing and maintaining this alliance was his greatest contribution to American independence.

Constitutional Convention and Final Years (1785-1790)

Franklin returned to America in 1785 and was elected President of Pennsylvania (equivalent to governor). He served three one-year terms, promoting abolition of slavery, prison reform, and public education.

In 1787, at age eighty-one, Franklin served as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. His age and infirmity limited his participation, but his presence lent prestige to the proceedings. His final speech urged delegates to support the Constitution despite their reservations, arguing that a flawed but workable government was better than continued disunion.

Franklin spent his final years in Philadelphia, continuing to write, correspond with friends, and promote philanthropic causes. He died on April 17, 1790, at age eighty-four. His funeral was attended by approximately 20,000 people, and he was buried at Christ Church Burial Ground.

Career Assessment

Franklin’s career was extraordinarily diverse and successful. He achieved distinction as: - Printer and publisher - Writer and journalist - Scientist and inventor - Civic leader and institution-builder - Politician and statesman - Diplomat

His career demonstrated that an individual could excel in multiple fields through intelligence, hard work, and practical wisdom. Franklin embodied the Enlightenment ideal of the self-made, self-improving individual who uses reason and effort to better both himself and society.

Benjamin Franklin: Major Works

Poor Richard’s Almanack (1733-1758)

Franklin’s most popular and influential publication was “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” published annually from 1733 to 1758 under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. The almanac combined practical information with maxims that became part of American culture.

Each edition contained: - Calendar and weather forecasts - Tide tables and astronomical information - Medical advice and recipes - Proverbs and maxims about virtue and success - Essays and satirical pieces - Poetry and humor

The almanac sold up to 10,000 copies annually, an enormous circulation for colonial America. Its maxims entered popular language: - “Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” - “A penny saved is a penny earned” - “God helps those who help themselves” - “Little strokes fell great oaks” - “Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other”

These maxims promoted Enlightenment values—industry, frugality, prudence—as paths to success. They shaped American character and remain quoted today.

The Autobiography

Franklin’s “Autobiography,” written in four parts between 1771 and 1790 (published posthumously), is one of the great works of American literature and the archetype of the American success story.

The work recounts Franklin’s rise from humble origins to international fame, emphasizing: - Self-education and self-improvement - Industry and frugality - Civic virtue and public service - Scientific curiosity and practical invention - Religious skepticism and moral virtue

Part One (1771), written in England, covers Franklin’s youth and early career. Part Two (1784), written in Paris, describes his self-improvement scheme and the virtues he sought to cultivate. Part Three (1788), written in Philadelphia, continues the narrative through his public career. Part Four (1790), unfinished at his death, briefly covers the Revolutionary period.

The “Autobiography” established the genre of self-made American success and influenced countless subsequent memoirs. It has been translated worldwide and remains in print over two centuries later.

Scientific Works

Experiments and Observations on Electricity (1751): Franklin’s letters on electricity, published by the Royal Society, established his scientific reputation. The work described his experiments with Leyden jars, lightning rods, and electrical theory. It was translated into French, German, and Italian and influenced electrical research throughout Europe.

Other scientific writings: Franklin published on: - The Aurora Borealis - Ocean currents (including the Gulf Stream) - Meteorology and weather prediction - Heat absorption and cooling - Lead poisoning - Hygiene and health

These works demonstrated Franklin’s empirical approach and his belief that scientific knowledge should serve practical human needs.

Political Writings

The Pennsylvania Gazette: Franklin’s newspaper, which he purchased in 1729, became the most successful in the colonies. Through its pages, he commented on politics, morals, and public affairs.

Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One (1773): A satirical piece criticizing British colonial policy, written as advice to ministers on how to lose colonies.

Edict by the King of Prussia (1773): Another satire, presenting British policies toward America as if Prussia were claiming similar rights over Britain based on ancient Saxon conquest.

The Interest of Great Britain Considered (1760): Arguments for British acquisition of Canada rather than Guadeloupe in the peace settlement ending the French and Indian War.

Various pamphlets on colonial rights, paper currency, and public policy.

Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania (1749)

This pamphlet outlined Franklin’s vision for the academy that would become the University of Pennsylvania. Franklin proposed a practical curriculum including: - English language and composition - Mathematics and accounting - History and geography - Modern languages - Natural history and science - Agriculture and mechanics

The proposal criticized classical education as impractical and argued for useful learning that would prepare students for business and public service. While the academy eventually adopted more classical elements, Franklin’s vision influenced American practical education.

Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind (1751)

This demographic essay analyzed colonial population growth and its implications. Franklin argued that: - American population was doubling every twenty years - Abundant land and resources drove this growth - Britain should acquire Canada to provide room for expansion - Manufacturing should be discouraged in favor of agriculture

The essay influenced subsequent thought about American population and manifest destiny. Its arguments about land and population growth anticipated Malthus and influenced British colonial policy.

Fart Proudly (also known as A Letter to a Royal Academy)

This humorous essay, written around 1781 while Franklin was in France, proposed that the Royal Academy of Brussels investigate methods of improving the odor of human flatulence. While satirical, it demonstrated Franklin’s willingness to discuss bodily functions and his belief that science should address all aspects of human life.

The essay was not published during Franklin’s lifetime, perhaps considered too indelicate, but has since become one of his most famous humorous works.

The Way to Wealth (1758)

Originally the preface to the final edition of Poor Richard’s Almanack, “The Way to Wealth” compiled the almanac’s maxims into a speech by “Father Abraham” advising on economic success. The work became enormously popular, translated into numerous languages and reprinted throughout the nineteenth century.

The essay distilled Franklin’s philosophy of work, thrift, and prudence into accessible form. It promoted the values of the emerging American middle class and influenced generations of self-improvement literature.

Diplomatic Correspondence

Franklin’s diplomatic correspondence, particularly from France during the American Revolution, constitutes a significant body of work: - Letters to the Continental Congress reporting on French politics - Correspondence with French officials seeking support - Negotiations with British representatives - Communications with other American diplomats - Reports on European affairs relevant to American interests

These letters demonstrated Franklin’s diplomatic skill and provide crucial documentation of the Revolutionary period. His letters to American leaders shaped their understanding of European politics.

Bagatelles

While in France, Franklin composed numerous humorous essays known as “bagatelles”—short, playful pieces on various topics. These included: - “The Ephemera” (comparing human life to that of mayflies) - “The Whistle” (moral tale about overvaluing things) - “Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout” - Various jokes and satirical pieces

The bagatelles showed Franklin’s wit and his appreciation for French literary culture. They entertained his French hosts and demonstrated that serious statesmanship could coexist with humor.

Last Will and Testament

Franklin’s will, written in 1788, was itself a literary and philosophical document. It included: - Bequests to family members - Gifts to various charitable causes - Instructions for loans to young married artisans - The famous bequest to Boston and Philadelphia for loans to young apprentices

The will reflected Franklin’s values—industry, frugality, public service—and his commitment to practical philanthropy. The loan funds he established lasted for two centuries, eventually funding educational institutions.

Assessment of Literary Achievement

Franklin’s literary achievement was significant but unusual. He was not primarily a creative writer of fiction or poetry. Instead, he excelled at: - Practical prose that served immediate purposes - Satire and humor - Autobiography and memoir - Scientific exposition - Political argument - Aphorism and maxim

His writing was clear, direct, and accessible—designed to communicate effectively rather than display literary virtuosity. This accessibility has been key to his enduring influence; his works can be read by general audiences across centuries.

Franklin’s major works established genres (autobiography, self-help, almanac wisdom) that influenced American literature and culture. His prose style—plain, practical, witty—became a model for American writing.

Benjamin Franklin: Achievements

Foundational Contributions to American Nationhood

Franklin’s most significant achievement was his role in creating the United States of America. As a member of the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence, he helped establish the theoretical foundations of American nationhood. His diplomatic work in France secured the alliance that made American victory possible.

Franklin was the only person to sign all four major documents of the American founding: - Declaration of Independence (1776) - Treaty of Alliance with France (1778) - Treaty of Paris (1783) - United States Constitution (1787)

This unique achievement reflects his central role in American independence, foreign relations, and constitutional formation.

Scientific Achievement

Franklin’s scientific work established him as one of the leading scientists of the eighteenth century:

Electricity: His experiments demonstrated that lightning was electrical, leading to the lightning rod’s invention. His electrical theory, while subsequently refined, provided foundation for modern electrical science.

Other discoveries: Work on ocean currents (especially the Gulf Stream), meteorology, heat transfer, and other phenomena contributed to scientific knowledge.

Recognition: Election to the Royal Society (1756), the Copley Medal (1753), and membership in scientific academies across Europe acknowledged his scientific stature.

Franklin demonstrated that Americans could contribute to world science and established the model of the scientifically informed citizen.

Invention and Innovation

Franklin invented numerous devices and improvements: - Lightning rod: Protected buildings worldwide from fire - Franklin stove: Provided more efficient heating - Bifocal lenses: Enabled him to read and see distances without changing glasses - Glass armonica: Musical instrument used by Mozart and others - Flexible catheter: Medical device for his brother - Various improvements to printing presses and other equipment

Franklin never patented his inventions, believing they should benefit all humanity. This decision reflected both his public-spiritedness and his belief that knowledge should be freely shared.

Institution Building

Franklin founded or helped establish major American institutions:

The Library Company of Philadelphia (1731): America’s first subscription library, providing access to books for members.

The American Philosophical Society (1743): For promoting scientific knowledge, still active today.

The University of Pennsylvania (1749): Originally the Academy and College of Philadelphia, now an Ivy League university.

Pennsylvania Hospital (1751): First hospital in the British colonies.

The Union Fire Company (1736): Philadelphia’s first volunteer fire department.

These institutions demonstrated Franklin’s belief that self-governing communities could solve their own problems through organized voluntary action.

Publishing and Media Success

Franklin’s achievements in publishing included: - Establishing a successful printing business that franchised across colonies - Creating “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” one of colonial America’s best-selling publications - Publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette, the colonies’ most influential newspaper - Introducing new typefaces and printing techniques to America - Training a generation of printers through his apprenticeship system

His success as a printer and publisher made him wealthy and gave him platform to influence public opinion.

Financial Success

Franklin achieved financial independence by age forty-two through: - Successful printing business - Strategic investments in real estate - Franchising printing operations in other cities - Government printing contracts - Prudent management and frugal living

His wealth enabled his later public service and scientific work. It also demonstrated that his maxims about industry and thrift were not merely theoretical but personally practiced.

Diplomatic Achievement

Franklin’s diplomatic achievements in France (1776-1785) were extraordinary: - Secured French recognition of American independence (Treaty of Alliance, 1778) - Obtained French financial and military aid essential to American victory - Negotiated favorable peace terms with Britain (Treaty of Paris, 1783) - Maintained French goodwill toward America despite difficulties - Represented American interests in complex European politics

His diplomatic success rested on his personal prestige, his scientific reputation, and his understanding of French culture and politics. The French alliance was decisive in American independence.

Literary Achievement

Franklin’s literary achievements include: - “The Autobiography”—foundational text of American literature - “Poor Richard’s Almanack”—maxims that entered American folklore - Pioneering American journalism - Influential political pamphlets and satires - Scientific papers that advanced knowledge - Humorous essays that entertained and instructed

His prose style—clear, direct, practical—influenced American writing and established vernacular prose as a literary medium.

Civic Leadership

Franklin’s civic achievements in Philadelphia included: - Founding the first subscription library - Organizing the first volunteer fire company - Establishing the first hospital - Creating the first learned society - Serving in municipal government - Improving street lighting and paving - Advocating for public education

These contributions made Philadelphia a model colonial city and demonstrated the possibilities of civic improvement through voluntary association.

Political Reform

Franklin’s political achievements included: - Reforming the postal system (as Deputy Postmaster General) - Advocating for colonial union (Albany Plan) - Promoting religious tolerance - Supporting gradual abolition of slavery (late in life) - Contributing to Pennsylvania’s constitution - Participating in the Constitutional Convention

His political career demonstrated commitment to practical reform rather than ideological consistency.

Legacy of Self-Improvement

Franklin’s systematic approach to self-improvement—his list of virtues, his daily examination, his emphasis on habit formation—created a model for personal development that influenced: - Self-help literature - Business ethics - Character education - Time management and productivity systems - Popular psychology

The self-improvement industry, worth billions today, traces conceptual lineage to Franklin’s methods.

International Reputation

Franklin achieved international recognition unprecedented for an American of his era: - Celebrated as scientist throughout Europe - Sought after by French high society - Honored by scientific academies - Consulted by foreign governments - Recognized as a major figure of the Enlightenment

This reputation enabled his diplomatic work and demonstrated that Americans could participate in world culture.

Philanthropic Legacy

Franklin’s philanthropic planning created lasting impact: - Loan funds for young artisans in Boston and Philadelphia (lasted 200 years) - Bequests to various charitable causes - Endowment for the American Philosophical Society - Support for education and scientific research

His will’s provisions reflected his values and continued his influence long after his death.

Assessment of Achievement

Franklin’s achievements span virtually every domain of human endeavor—science, invention, politics, diplomacy, literature, business, and philanthropy. This breadth was both strength and limitation; he was not the single greatest figure in any field, but no one matched his range of accomplishment.

His achievements rested on: - Exceptional intelligence and curiosity - Methodical approach to problems - Practical focus on useful results - Strong work ethic - Ability to work with diverse people - Willingness to learn and adapt - Commitment to public service

Franklin demonstrated that Enlightenment ideals—reason, science, progress, civic virtue—could be realized in practice. His life showed that individual effort could improve both personal circumstances and society.

Benjamin Franklin: Personal Life

Character and Personality

Benjamin Franklin presented a public image of the practical, industrious, good-humored American. Behind this persona was a complex personality combining genuine virtues with significant flaws. He was ambitious yet public-spirited, self-promoting yet generous, promiscuous yet morally earnest.

Contemporaries described Franklin as: - Approachable: Unlike many men of his stature, he remained accessible to ordinary people - Humorous: Enjoyed jokes, puns, and playful conversation - Curious: Insatiably interested in how things worked and why people behaved as they did - Pragmatic: Focused on practical results rather than abstract theory - Worldly: Comfortable in high society and common taverns alike - Skeptical: Questioning of received wisdom and religious dogma

Franklin’s self-presentation was carefully managed. He cultivated the image of the simple American philosopher, which charmed Europeans and reinforced his influence. How much this persona reflected his true personality versus calculated performance remains debated.

Common-Law Marriage to Deborah Read

Franklin’s primary relationship was with Deborah Read, whom he met shortly after arriving in Philadelphia in 1723. When Franklin went to London, Deborah married John Rogers, a potter, who soon abandoned her, possibly fleeing debts. His fate was uncertain.

When Franklin returned in 1726, he and Deborah resumed their relationship but could not legally marry because Deborah’s first husband’s fate was unknown (he may have died, but this could not be proven). In 1730, they entered a common-law marriage that would last until Deborah’s death in 1774.

The marriage was practical rather than romantic. Deborah managed Franklin’s business, raised their children, and maintained the household while Franklin pursued his various interests. Their relationship was marked by mutual respect but also by Franklin’s frequent absences and eventual infidelities.

Children

Franklin had three children:

William Franklin (c. 1730-1813): Born out of wedlock, possibly to a different mother than Deborah. William became the last royal governor of New Jersey. During the American Revolution, he remained loyal to Britain, causing a permanent breach with his father. They never reconciled.

Francis Folger Franklin (1732-1736): Born to Benjamin and Deborah, Francis died of smallpox at age four. Franklin was devastated and became an advocate for smallpox inoculation.

Sarah (Sally) Franklin Bache (1743-1808): The Franklins’ only surviving child to adulthood. Sally married Richard Bache and had children. She remained close to her father, managing his household in his later years and caring for him in old age.

Franklin’s relationship with William was destroyed by the Revolution. His relationship with Sally was warm, though he was frequently absent during her childhood.

Extramarital Relationships

Franklin’s personal life included numerous extramarital relationships, particularly during his long absences from Philadelphia. While serving in London (1757-1762, 1764-1775), he enjoyed the company of various women and maintained what were likely sexual relationships with several.

Most significant was his relationship with Catherine Ray, whom he met in 1755 when she was twenty-three and he was fifty. Their correspondence continued for decades, blending flirtation with philosophical discussion. Whether the relationship was physically consummated is unknown.

In London, Franklin boarded with Margaret Stevenson and her daughter Polly (Mary). His relationship with Polly was close and possibly romantic; she was fifty years his junior. Franklin’s letters to various women combined intellectual engagement with physical affection.

Franklin’s womanizing has been variously interpreted as: - Simple hypocrisy—preaching virtue while practicing vice - Enlightenment libertinism—rejecting conventional morality - Midlife crisis and compensation for an unsatisfying marriage - Cultural adaptation to European aristocratic norms

Whatever the interpretation, Franklin’s sexual behavior complicated his image as moral exemplar.

Deborah’s Death and Franklin’s Response

Deborah Franklin died in 1774 while Benjamin was in England. He had been absent for ten years. Their final years of marriage were conducted through correspondence; Deborah refused to cross the ocean due to fear of sea travel.

Franklin expressed grief at Deborah’s death but also relief. Their marriage had become a formality, and Deborah’s intellectual limitations had long frustrated him. He did not return to Philadelphia for her funeral.

This treatment of his wife has been criticized as callous. Franklin’s commitment to practical achievement may have come at the expense of personal relationships.

Life in France

Franklin’s years in France (1776-1785) were personally as well as professionally significant. At age seventy, he enjoyed the role of American philosopher-statesman, charming French society with his simplicity and wit.

He lived at Passy, outside Paris, in a household that included his grandsons Temple (William’s illegitimate son) and Benny Bache (Sally’s son). His domestic arrangements were unconventional; he was attended by various women including Madame Brillon, with whom he had a platonic but intimate relationship.

Franklin adapted to French customs, including the acceptance of mistresses and social nudity (he famously took “air baths” sitting naked by his window). His personal life in France scandalized some Americans but impressed the French.

Relationship with His Grandsons

Franklin raised his grandsons Temple and Benny during his time in France. Temple served as his secretary and accompanied him on diplomatic business. Benny received education in France.

Franklin’s favoritism toward Temple over Benny caused family tension. Temple was the son of Franklin’s beloved but estranged son William, and Franklin may have been compensating for his failure to reconcile with William.

The grandsons’ later lives were troubled. Temple had difficulty establishing himself in America due to his Loyalist father. Benny became a journalist and publisher but struggled financially. Franklin’s legacy to them was complicated by family divisions.

Personal Philosophy

Franklin’s personal philosophy emphasized: - Practical morality: Virtue defined by action rather than intention - Self-improvement: Systematic effort to develop good habits - Utility: Actions judged by their usefulness - Moderation: Avoiding extremes in behavior - Public service: Using abilities for community benefit

This philosophy shaped his personal conduct, though he did not always live up to his own standards. His lapses—sexual infidelity, neglect of family—contrasted with his public preaching of virtue.

Franklin was skeptical of organized religion but believed in God and an afterlife where virtue would be rewarded. His religion was essentially practical—belief in divine providence and moral order without doctrinal specificity.

Health and Habits

Franklin enjoyed generally good health for most of his long life. He attributed this to: - Moderate diet (though he enjoyed food and drink) - Regular exercise (swimming, walking) - Fresh air (his “air baths”) - Abstemiousness in alcohol (drinking wine but rarely spirits)

In his later years, he suffered from: - Gout (“the Gout”), which he personified humorously in his writing - Bladder stones - General infirmity of age

His last years were marked by increasing physical limitation, though he remained mentally active until the end.

Financial Attitudes

Despite his wealth, Franklin maintained habits of frugality. He: - Kept simple accounts tracking daily expenditures - Avoided ostentatious display - Invested conservatively - Provided for his family while encouraging self-reliance

His wealth enabled his public service and gave him independence. He viewed money as a tool for achieving good rather than an end in itself.

Friendships

Franklin maintained extensive correspondence with friends across the world. His friendships included: - Jonathan Williams: Business partner and correspondent - Cadwallader Colden: Fellow scientist and colonial official - Peter Collinson: English merchant and scientific correspondent - Various French philosophers and scientists

These friendships combined intellectual exchange with personal affection. Franklin’s sociability was genuine; he enjoyed conversation and connection.

Final Years

Franklin spent his final years (1785-1790) in Philadelphia, surrounded by his daughter Sally’s family. He continued writing, corresponding, and serving in public office (President of Pennsylvania, member of the Constitutional Convention).

His relationship with his son William remained broken; they never reconciled before Franklin’s death. This estrangement caused Franklin pain but also reflected his principled commitment to American independence.

Franklin died on April 17, 1790, at age eighty-four. His funeral was attended by approximately 20,000 people, demonstrating the public affection he commanded despite his personal failings.

Personal Legacy

Franklin’s personal life was marked by the same combination of achievement and compromise that characterized his public career. He was: - A devoted public servant but often absent husband and father - A moral philosopher who did not always practice his preachings - A self-made man who sometimes exaggerated his humble origins - A democrat who enjoyed aristocratic company and honors

These contradictions make Franklin human rather than merely mythic. His personal life demonstrates that great achievement does not require perfect virtue, and that historical figures are as complex as the rest of us.

Benjamin Franklin: Historical Impact

Shaping American Identity

Franklin’s most profound impact was shaping American identity and values. Through his writings, particularly “Poor Richard’s Almanack” and his “Autobiography,” he established archetypes of the self-made American, the practical problem-solver, and the citizen devoted to public service.

The values Franklin promoted—industry, frugality, honesty, civic virtue—became central to American self-conception. His maxims entered the language and continue to shape American attitudes toward work, success, and character. The “American Dream” of self-improvement and upward mobility traces intellectual lineage to Franklin’s example.

Franklin demonstrated that an American could achieve international recognition through intellect and practical achievement rather than inherited status. This model influenced subsequent American self-understanding.

Founding the United States

Franklin’s role in founding the United States was multifaceted: - Philosopher of independence: His writings on colonial rights and colonial union laid groundwork for revolution - Diplomat of alliance: His work in France secured the alliance essential to American victory - Constitutional architect: His presence at the Constitutional Convention lent legitimacy, and his final speech helped secure ratification - Symbolic founder: His image and example became part of the founding mythology

The fact that Franklin—who was elderly and ill during the Revolution—threw himself into the revolutionary cause demonstrated that American independence was a cause worth sacrifice by all generations.

Scientific Legacy

Franklin’s scientific work established that: - Americans could contribute to world science - Scientific knowledge should serve practical human needs - Empirical observation and experimentation were valid paths to knowledge - Scientific reputation could enhance national prestige

His work on electricity, though subsequently refined, contributed to understanding of electrical phenomena and produced the lightning rod, which protected buildings worldwide. His broader scientific investigations—in oceanography, meteorology, thermodynamics—advanced knowledge in multiple fields.

Franklin’s scientific example influenced American scientific development, establishing the tradition of the scientifically informed citizen and the practical application of scientific knowledge.

Institutional Creation

The institutions Franklin founded continue to function: - University of Pennsylvania: Ivy League university and major research institution - American Philosophical Society: Oldest learned society in America, still active - Library Company of Philadelphia: Still operating as a research library - Pennsylvania Hospital: Still functioning, now part of larger health system - Fire companies: Model for American volunteer fire departments

These institutions demonstrated that self-governing communities could solve their own problems through voluntary association. They became models for American civil society.

Printing and Media

Franklin’s influence on American journalism and publishing included: - Establishing the professional printer as a respected occupation - Demonstrating the power of the press to shape public opinion - Creating models for newspaper publication - Introducing new technologies and typefaces - Training a generation of printers through his apprenticeship system

The American tradition of a free press serving as government watchdog traces partly to Franklin’s example. His success showed that printing could be both profitable and public-spirited.

Diplomatic Precedent

Franklin’s diplomatic service established precedents for American foreign relations: - Cultivation of popular opinion abroad to influence government policy - Use of cultural prestige (Franklin’s scientific reputation) to advance political goals - Maintenance of friendly relations even with ideological opponents - Patient negotiation to achieve favorable outcomes

His success in France demonstrated that the new nation could hold its own in European power politics. His diplomatic methods influenced subsequent American foreign policy.

Model of Self-Improvement

Franklin’s systematic approach to self-improvement influenced: - Self-help literature and the self-improvement industry - Business ethics and character education - Time management and productivity systems - Popular psychology and personal development - The concept of the “self-made” person

The self-improvement industry, worth billions today, traces conceptual and methodological lineage to Franklin’s methods. His list of virtues, his daily examination, and his emphasis on habit formation remain influential.

Enlightenment Values in America

Franklin was the most prominent American representative of the Enlightenment. He promoted: - Reason as the basis for knowledge and decision-making - Science as the path to understanding nature - Religious tolerance and freedom of conscience - Education as the foundation of citizenship - Progress through human effort and ingenuity

These Enlightenment values, embodied in Franklin’s life and work, became central to American ideology. His example demonstrated that philosophical ideals could be lived in practice.

Abolition and Social Reform

While Franklin owned slaves for much of his life, his later conversion to abolitionism was significant: - He became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society in 1787 - He petitioned Congress to end slavery - He wrote against the slave trade - His example showed that people could change and grow on moral issues

Franklin’s evolution on slavery provided a model for subsequent Americans who came to oppose the institution. His late-life activism demonstrated that age need not prevent moral growth.

Symbol of American Possibility

Franklin became a symbol of what America made possible: - Rise from humble origins to international fame - Achievement through intelligence and effort rather than birth - Success across multiple fields - Combination of material success with public service - Practical wisdom applied to human problems

This symbolism made Franklin the most accessible of the Founding Fathers. Unlike the aristocratic Washington or the intellectual Jefferson, Franklin seemed like an ordinary person who achieved extraordinary things through effort and ingenuity.

Currency and Iconography

Franklin’s image on the $100 bill (since 1914) makes him a daily presence in American life and international commerce. His face is among the most recognized in the world.

His image has been used to sell countless products, to promote various causes, and to represent American values. This ubiquity keeps Franklin present in American consciousness, though often without deep understanding of his actual life and work.

Critical Reassessment

Recent scholarship has complicated Franklin’s historical image: - Attention to his treatment of women and his family - Recognition that his self-made story was somewhat exaggerated - Analysis of his role as slaveholder before becoming abolitionist - Critique of his emphasis on wealth and success - Questioning of whether his values serve contemporary needs

These critical perspectives do not diminish Franklin’s achievements but provide more nuanced understanding of his life and legacy. Historical figures can be both admirable and flawed, influential and problematic.

Global Influence

Franklin’s influence extends beyond America: - His scientific work was recognized throughout Europe - His writings were translated worldwide - His diplomatic work shaped international relations - His institutions served as models for other nations - His autobiography inspired readers across cultures

Franklin demonstrated that Enlightenment values could be realized in practice and that individuals could improve both themselves and society through reason and effort.

Conclusion

Benjamin Franklin’s historical impact is difficult to overstate. He helped create the United States, shaped American values, advanced scientific knowledge, founded enduring institutions, and established models of self-improvement and civic virtue.

His life demonstrated that intellectual achievement, practical innovation, public service, and material success could coexist. His example showed that ordinary individuals could accomplish extraordinary things through intelligence, effort, and public-spiritedness.

Franklin’s legacy remains contested and complex. He was not the perfect man his early biographers portrayed, but he was genuinely extraordinary in his range of achievement and his commitment to human improvement. Over two centuries after his death, his influence continues in American institutions, values, and self-understanding.