Catherine the Great

Full Name and Titles

Yekaterina Alekseyevna (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна), born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst. Known to history as Catherine II, Empress and Autocrat of All the Russias.

Vital Statistics

• Born: May 2, 1729, Stettin, Pomerania (now Szczecin, Poland)
• Died: November 17, 1796, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire (age 67)
• Reign: July 9, 1762 - November 17, 1796 (34 years, 4 months, 8 days)
• Predecessor: Peter III (her husband)
• Successor: Paul I (her son)
• House: Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
• Religion: Russian Orthodox (converted from Lutheranism)

Nationality and Background

Catherine was born into minor German nobility in the Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst, part of the Holy Roman Empire. Her marriage to the heir of the Russian throne brought her to Russia in 1744, where she converted to Orthodox Christianity and adopted the Russian name Yekaterina. Despite her German origins, she became one of the most Russian of all Russian monarchs and identified deeply with her adopted country.

Occupations and Roles

• Empress of Russia (1762-1796)
• Enlightened absolutist ruler
• Patron of arts and education
• Legal reformer
• Military strategist and expansionist
• Correspondent with leading philosophers

Era

Catherine ruled during the height of the Age of Enlightenment in the latter half of the 18th century. Her reign coincided with the American Revolution (1775-1783), the French Revolution (beginning 1789), and the continued rise of the Russian Empire as a major European power. Her court at Saint Petersburg was among the most glittering in Europe, attracting intellectuals, artists, and ambitious nobles from across the continent.

Introduction

Catherine the Great stands as one of the most remarkable rulers in world history. Rising from relatively obscure German nobility to become the longest-reigning female leader of Russia, she transformed the Russian Empire into one of Europe’s great powers through territorial expansion, administrative reform, and cultural development. Her 34-year reign brought the Enlightenment to Russia while simultaneously expanding serfdom and autocratic power.

Catherine’s life reads like an adventure novel. She came to Russia at age 14 to marry the heir apparent, Peter, in a union arranged by Empress Elizabeth to secure the succession. The marriage proved disastrous, with Peter proving immature, possibly impotent, and culturally more German than Russian. Catherine educated herself during years of isolation, reading voraciously and building political connections that would prove crucial.

In July 1762, with the support of the Orlov brothers and key military regiments, she orchestrated a coup d’état that deposed her husband Peter III. Within months, she was crowned Empress in a magnificent ceremony at the Cathedral of the Dormition in Moscow. Her reign saw the Russian Empire expand by approximately 200,000 square miles through three partitions of Poland and wars against the Ottoman Empire that brought Crimea under Russian control.

As an “enlightened despot,” Catherine corresponded with Voltaire for 15 years and hosted Diderot at her court. She attempted to modernize Russian law through the Nakaz (Instruction) of 1767 and established the Smolny Institute, Russia’s first state-financed higher education institution for women, in 1764. She vastly expanded the Hermitage Museum’s collections, acquiring thousands of paintings that form the core of one of the world’s great art museums.

Yet Catherine’s legacy remains complex and controversial. While espousing Enlightenment ideals, she reinforced the institution of serfdom, which worsened conditions for the majority of her subjects. The 1773-1775 Pugachev Rebellion, the largest peasant uprising in Russian history, exposed the deep social tensions her policies exacerbated. Her personal life, including a series of documented lovers and possible secret marriage to Grigory Potemkin, scandalized contemporaries and spawned persistent rumors (including the infamous but false story of her death during sexual intercourse with a horse).

Catherine died on November 17, 1796, at age 67, apparently from a stroke. Her son Paul succeeded her and immediately began reversing many of her policies. Today, Catherine is remembered as “the Great” - a title earned through territorial expansion, cultural achievement, and the sheer force of her personality and intellect.

Early Life of Catherine the Great

Family Background

Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst was born into minor German nobility on May 2, 1729, in Stettin, Pomerania (present-day Szczecin, Poland). Her father, Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, served as a general in the Prussian army and held the position of governor of Stettin. Despite his military career and princely title, Christian August possessed limited means and governed a small, relatively insignificant territory. Her mother, Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, came from a more prestigious family and harbored ambitious social aspirations that would profoundly shape her daughter’s destiny.

The family was Lutheran, and Sophie’s upbringing reflected the religious and cultural values of Protestant North Germany. She had one brother, Wilhelm Christian, who died young, making her the focus of her mother’s attention and ambitions. The von Anhalt-Zerbst family maintained connections to various European royal houses through marriage and political alliances, connections that would prove decisive in Sophie’s future.

Childhood and Education

Sophie’s childhood was shaped by her mother’s disappointment at not bearing a son and her father’s relatively modest circumstances. Johanna Elisabeth sought to advance the family’s position through advantageous marriages, and Sophie became the vehicle for these ambitions. The young princess received an education typical for aristocratic girls of her era but showed exceptional intelligence and curiosity from an early age.

Her education included: - French language and literature: French served as the lingua franca of European aristocracy, and Sophie became fluent. She read French classics and developed a lifelong love of literature. - History: She studied the histories of Europe and antiquity, developing an understanding of statecraft and governance. - Lutheran theology: Religious instruction formed a core component of her early education. - Music and dance: Accomplishments expected of aristocratic ladies. - Etiquette and courtly behavior: Essential training for her future position.

Sophie suffered from various childhood ailments and was not considered a great beauty, though her intelligent eyes and pleasant demeanor impressed observers. She developed a strong will and independence of character during these formative years, traits that would serve her well in the turbulent years ahead.

The Invitation to Russia (1744)

The pivotal moment in Sophie’s young life came in 1744 when she was invited to Russia by Empress Elizabeth. The Russian Empress sought a wife for her nephew and heir, Peter, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, had seized the throne in 1741 and needed to secure the succession. Peter, born in 1728 to Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (Johanna Elisabeth’s brother), and Anna Petrovna (Peter the Great’s daughter), was Elizabeth’s closest legitimate heir.

Several factors made Sophie an attractive candidate: 1. Family connections: Her mother was Peter’s aunt, making Sophie his second cousin. 2. Appropriate rank: As a princess of the Holy Roman Empire, she possessed sufficient status. 3. Protestant faith: Like Peter, she was Lutheran, though conversion would be required. 4. Age: At 14, she was considered ready for marriage by 18th-century standards.

Johanna Elisabeth saw this invitation as the opportunity she had long sought. She and Sophie departed for Saint Petersburg in January 1744, accompanied by a modest retinue. The journey through winter landscapes took several weeks, giving Sophie time to contemplate her future.

Arrival in Russia and Conversion

Sophie and her mother arrived in Saint Petersburg in February 1744. Empress Elizabeth immediately took a liking to the young princess, finding her intelligent, modest, and agreeable. However, Sophie faced significant challenges: she needed to learn Russian, convert to Orthodox Christianity, and win over the Russian court and people.

Sophie approached these challenges with characteristic determination. She applied herself to learning Russian with such dedication that she rose at night to study, suffering a near-fatal lung infection as a result. Her efforts impressed Elizabeth and the court, demonstrating her commitment to her new homeland.

On June 28, 1744, Sophie was received into the Russian Orthodox Church in a solemn ceremony at the Cathedral of the Kremlin in Moscow. She took the name Yekaterina (Catherine) Alekseyevna, honoring Empress Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I, and St. Alexius. Her mother was excluded from the ceremony due to her Lutheran faith, and Catherine reportedly embraced her new religion with genuine conviction rather than mere political expediency.

Marriage to Peter (1745)

Catherine’s marriage to Peter took place on August 21, 1745, at the Church of the Virgin of Kazan in Saint Petersburg. The ceremony was magnificent, attended by thousands and followed by celebrations lasting weeks. However, the marriage itself proved problematic from the start.

Peter was 16, immature, and fixated on military toys and games rather than governance or romance. He maintained a strong attachment to all things Prussian, particularly the Prussian military, which alienated the Russian court where anti-Prussian sentiment ran high due to ongoing conflicts. Catherine found him physically unattractive and intellectually stunted.

The marriage was not consummated for years, reportedly due to Peter’s immaturity and possible physiological issues. This failure to produce an heir threatened Catherine’s position at court and caused her significant anxiety. Empress Elizabeth, desperate for a grandchild, pressured both parties and even considered setting Catherine aside.

Early Years in Russia (1745-1754)

Catherine’s early years in Russia were marked by isolation, boredom, and political vulnerability. Excluded from state affairs and trapped in an unhappy marriage, she turned to reading as solace. Her studies during this period proved invaluable:

• French Enlightenment philosophy: Voltaire, Montesquieu, and other thinkers
• Russian history: To understand her adopted country
• Political theory: Preparing for potential future responsibilities
• Literature: Developing her considerable intellect

She also began building political connections during these years. The court was a dangerous place, filled with intrigue and shifting alliances. Catherine learned to navigate this environment, cultivating relationships with influential courtiers and military officers who would later prove crucial to her rise.

The Birth of Paul (1754)

The birth of a son, Paul, on September 20, 1754, secured Catherine’s position but did not improve her marriage. The paternity of Paul was questioned even at the time, with most historians believing Catherine’s first lover, Count Sergei Saltykov, was the biological father rather than Peter. Empress Elizabeth immediately took charge of the infant, raising him according to her own ideas and limiting Catherine’s contact with her son.

This period also marked the beginning of Catherine’s sexual independence. Her affair with Saltykov was the first of many documented relationships with men. In an era when powerful men routinely took mistresses, Catherine claimed the same prerogative. Her subsequent lovers would include future King of Poland Stanislaus Poniatowski, the Orlov brothers who would aid her coup, and most significantly, Prince Grigory Potemkin.

Years of Preparation (1754-1762)

Between 1754 and 1762, Catherine continued her education and political preparation while living under the shadow of Empress Elizabeth and the increasingly erratic Peter. She read voraciously, corresponded with intellectuals across Europe, and built a network of supporters among the military and nobility.

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) further complicated matters, as Peter’s pro-Prussian sympathies alienated Russian military and court opinion. Catherine observed these developments carefully, recognizing that Peter’s behavior might create opportunities. She positioned herself as more Russian than the Russian-born but culturally German Peter, emphasizing her Orthodox faith, her Russian language skills, and her adoption of Russian customs.

By 1761, when Empress Elizabeth’s health began to fail, Catherine had established herself as a popular figure at court and in Saint Petersburg society. She was 32 years old, intelligent, well-read, politically astute, and prepared for the dramatic events that would soon transform her from a neglected wife into Empress of All the Russias.

Career and Reign of Catherine the Great

The Succession of Peter III (January-July 1762)

Empress Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762, New Style), and Peter succeeded as Peter III. His brief reign proved disastrous. Peter immediately withdrew Russia from the Seven Years’ War, making peace with Prussia in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (May 5, 1762). This move, while saving Russian lives and treasury, alienated the military and damaged Russian prestige. He further offended Orthodox opinion by seizing church lands and attempting to secularize church property.

Peter’s behavior became increasingly erratic. He openly flaunted his mistress, Elizabeth Vorontsova, insulted the Orthodox Church, and threatened to set aside Catherine in favor of his mistress. More dangerously, he ordered the arrest of Catherine and discussed sending her to a convent. These threats, combined with his unpopular policies, created the conditions for Catherine’s coup.

The Coup d’État (July 1762)

Catherine, warned of Peter’s intentions, acted preemptively. On July 8-9, 1762, with the support of the Orlov brothers (Grigory, Alexei, and Fyodor) and the Izmailovsky and Preobrazhensky Guards regiments, she marched to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. The soldiers, already alienated by Peter’s pro-Prussian policies and preferential treatment of his German soldiers, rallied to her cause.

Peter, staying at his suburban palace at Oranienbaum, was arrested without significant resistance. He abdicated on July 9, 1762, and was taken to the village of Ropsha under guard. On July 17, 1762, he died under mysterious circumstances, officially of “hemorrhoidal colic” but most likely murdered on orders from the Orlovs, possibly with Catherine’s knowledge.

Coronation and Consolidation (1762-1767)

Catherine was crowned Empress in a magnificent ceremony on September 22, 1762, at the Cathedral of the Dormition in Moscow. She immediately moved to consolidate her position, rewarding her supporters with titles, land, and wealth. The Orlov brothers received high honors, and Grigory Orlov became her official favorite and chief political advisor.

Her early reign focused on: 1. Securing military loyalty: Paying arrears, improving conditions 2. Winning noble support: Confirming privileges, expanding serfdom 3. Administrative reform: Establishing new governing institutions 4. Cultural patronage: Positioning Russia as an Enlightened European power

The Legislative Commission and Nakaz (1767-1768)

In 1767, Catherine convened the Legislative Commission (composed of deputies from all social classes except serfs) to create a new legal code for Russia. To guide their work, she composed the Nakaz (Instruction), a document outlining her vision for Russian law based on Enlightenment principles. The Nakaz borrowed heavily from Montesquieu, Beccaria, and other thinkers, advocating for: - Equality before the law - Protection of individual rights - Abolition of torture and capital punishment - Separation of powers

The Commission met from 1767 to 1768 but accomplished little beyond providing Catherine with information about conditions across the Empire. Its failure to produce a new code illustrated the difficulty of implementing Enlightenment ideals in autocratic Russia with its entrenched noble privileges.

The First Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774)

A Polish civil war over religious rights for Orthodox Christians sparked conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which threatened to intervene. The resulting Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) proved highly successful for Russia. Russian armies under generals Rumyantsev and Orlov won major victories, and the Russian Baltic Fleet sailed around Europe to the Mediterranean, destroying the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Chesma (1770).

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (July 21, 1774) was a diplomatic triumph: - Russia gained access to the Black Sea through the ports of Azov, Kerch, and Kinburn - The Crimean Khanate gained independence from Ottoman control (later annexed by Russia in 1783) - Russia gained the right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire - Commercial concessions favorable to Russian trade

This treaty established Russia as the dominant power in the Black Sea region and protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

The First Partition of Poland (1772)

While Catherine was occupied with Turkey, Poland’s weakness attracted the attention of neighboring powers. Frederick II of Prussia proposed a partition to prevent Russian domination of Poland. Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to the First Partition of Poland in 1772, with Russia annexing approximately 30,000 square miles of Polish territory along the Dvina and Dnieper rivers.

This partition, conducted without Polish consent, marked the beginning of the end for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Catherine justified it as necessary to secure Russia’s western frontier and protect Orthodox populations, though it was fundamentally an act of imperial expansion.

Pugachev’s Rebellion (1773-1775)

The most serious domestic crisis of Catherine’s reign erupted in 1773 when Emelyan Pugachev, a Don Cossack, claimed to be Peter III (resurrected from the dead or escaped from imprisonment) and led a massive peasant uprising. Pugachev promised to end serfdom, kill the nobility, and restore traditional Cossack liberties.

The rebellion spread across the Volga and Ural regions, attracting peasants, Cossacks, ethnic minorities, and runaway serfs. Pugachev’s forces captured major cities including Kazan and threatened Moscow before being defeated by General Michelsohnen in 1774. Pugachev was captured, taken to Moscow, and executed in January 1775.

The rebellion exposed the deep social tensions in Russian society and the fragility of Catherine’s rule. In response, she: - Accelerated the expansion of serfdom into new territories - Strengthened noble control over serfs - Abandoned further discussion of abolishing serfdom - Implemented administrative reforms to strengthen central control

The Provincial Reform (1775)

Following Pugachev’s Rebellion, Catherine implemented a major administrative reorganization in 1775. The reforms reorganized local government, creating: - Larger provinces (guberniyas) with appointed governors - Elected local institutions dominated by nobles - A clearer hierarchy of administrative authority - Improved (though still limited) local services

These reforms strengthened noble power at the local level while maintaining central control, reflecting Catherine’s dependence on noble support for her regime.

The Annexation of Crimea (1783)

Prince Grigory Potemkin, Catherine’s closest advisor and probable secret husband, orchestrated the annexation of Crimea. The Crimean Khanate, nominally independent since 1774, was effectively controlled by Russia. In 1783, citing Ottoman violations of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and requests from Crimean nobles, Catherine formally annexed Crimea.

This move secured Russian control of the northern Black Sea coast, opened the region to Russian colonization, and established Sevastopol as a major naval base. It remains one of Catherine’s most significant territorial acquisitions, though it sparked renewed conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

The Charter of the Nobility (April 21, 1785) formally defined and expanded noble privileges. It: - Exempted nobles from taxation and corporal punishment - Granted them exclusive rights to own serfs and land with serfs - Allowed corporate organization of nobility with elected marshals - Confirmed their exemption from compulsory state service (a Peter the Great innovation)

This charter represented Catherine’s bargain with the Russian nobility: she confirmed and expanded their privileges in exchange for their political support. It entrenched serfdom and noble dominance until the 19th-century reforms of Alexander II.

Journey to Crimea (1787)

In 1787, Catherine made a grand journey to newly annexed Crimea, accompanied by foreign ambassadors and dignitaries including Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. The trip, organized by Potemkin, featured elaborate entertainments and supposedly included “Potemkin villages” - fake prosperous settlements created to impress visitors. (Modern historians debate the extent of Potemkin’s deception; the settlements were real, if hastily improved.)

The journey demonstrated Russian control of Crimea and showcased Catherine’s empire to European observers. However, it also provoked the Ottoman Empire, which saw the annexation of Muslim territory as intolerable.

Second Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792)

The Ottoman Empire declared war in 1787, hoping to reverse the losses of 1774. Despite initial setbacks and Swedish intervention (the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790), Russia ultimately prevailed. Russian forces under Suvorov won victories at Kinburn (1787), Ochakov (1788), and Ismail (1790).

The Treaty of Jassy (January 9, 1792) confirmed Russian possession of Crimea and extended the Russian frontier to the Dniester River. Russia now dominated the northern Black Sea coast completely.

Second and Third Partitions of Poland (1793, 1795)

The Polish reform movement, culminating in the Constitution of May 3, 1791, threatened the interests of Poland’s partitioning powers. Catherine intervened to support the Targowica Confederation of conservative Polish nobles opposed to reform. Russian troops invaded, and the Second Partition (1793) followed, with Russia and Prussia annexing additional Polish territory.

A Polish uprising under Tadeusz Kościuszko in 1794 was crushed by Russian and Prussian forces. The Third Partition (1795) divided the remaining Polish territory between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, wiping Poland off the map until 1918.

Catherine played a central role in these partitions, acquiring approximately 180,000 square miles of Polish territory and ending the Polish state’s 800-year existence.

Relations with the French Revolution (1789-1796)

The French Revolution initially intrigued Catherine, but its increasingly radical turn horrified her. The execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793) and Marie Antoinette (October 16, 1793) - the latter her former correspondent and fellow monarch - convinced her that the Revolution threatened all legitimate monarchy.

She became a leading opponent of Revolutionary France, though her actual military involvement was limited by geography and other commitments. She provided financial support to counter-revolutionary forces and joined coalitions against France. The Revolution also prompted her to suppress liberal ideas within Russia more firmly and abandon any pretense of legal reform.

Final Years (1793-1796)

Catherine’s final years were marked by declining health but continued activity. She maintained her correspondence with intellectuals, though her enthusiasm for Enlightenment reform had evaporated. Her relationship with her son Paul remained strained; she considered bypassing him in favor of her grandson Alexander but never formalized such plans.

Her last favorite was the 22-year-old Platon Zubov, whom she appointed to high positions despite his youth and inexperience. Zubov’s influence angered many at court but demonstrated Catherine’s continued willingness to defy convention.

Catherine continued working on state affairs until her death on November 17, 1796. Her 34-year reign had transformed Russia into a major European power, expanded its territory by approximately 200,000 square miles, and established it as a center of European culture and political influence.

Major Achievements of Catherine the Great

Territorial Expansion

Catherine’s reign added approximately 200,000 square miles to the Russian Empire, making her one of history’s most successful expansionist rulers:

Acquisition of New Russia and Crimea (1774-1783)

• Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774): Gained access to northern Black Sea, independence for Crimea from Ottoman control
• Annexation of Crimea (1783): Formal incorporation of Crimean Khanate, securing warm-water ports
• Territory acquired: Approximately 63,000 square miles of strategic Black Sea coastline
• Significance: Established Russian dominance in the Black Sea region; created naval base at Sevastopol

The Partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)

Catherine participated in all three partitions that eliminated Poland as an independent state:

First Partition (1772): - Russian acquisition: Approximately 30,000 square miles including parts of modern Belarus and Latvia - Cities gained: Vitebsk, Polotsk, Mogilev

Second Partition (1793): - Russian acquisition: Approximately 97,000 square miles including most of modern Belarus and western Ukraine - Cities gained: Minsk, Kiev region

Third Partition (1795): - Russian acquisition: Remaining eastern Polish territories including Vilnius - Total Russian gain from partitions: Approximately 180,000 square miles

Russo-Turkish War Gains

Through two successful wars against the Ottoman Empire (1768-1774 and 1787-1792), Catherine secured: - The northern Black Sea coast from the Dniester to the Kuban - The right to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories - Commercial navigation rights in Turkish waters

Legal and Administrative Reforms

The Nakaz (Instruction) of 1767

Catherine’s most significant intellectual achievement, the Nakaz was a 526-article document drafted to guide the Legislative Commission. It drew upon: - Montesquieu’s “The Spirit of the Laws” - Beccaria’s “On Crimes and Punishments” - Blackstone’s “Commentaries on the Laws of England”

Key provisions included: - Advocacy of equality before the law - Prohibition of torture in most circumstances - Limitation of capital punishment - Separation of judicial, executive, and legislative functions - Recognition of individual property rights

While the Legislative Commission failed to produce a new legal code, the Nakaz was translated across Europe and praised by Enlightenment figures including Voltaire.

Provincial Reform (1775)

Following Pugachev’s Rebellion, Catherine reorganized Russia’s administrative structure: - Created 50 provinces (guberniyas) and nearly 500 districts (uyezds) - Established clear hierarchies of authority - Created elected provincial and district courts - Established welfare boards for social services - Created economic boards for trade and industry

These reforms lasted, with modifications, until the 20th century.

Charter of the Nobility (1785)

This decree formalized the Russian nobility’s status: - Created corporate organization of nobility with elected marshals - Exempted nobles from taxation and corporal punishment - Granted exclusive rights to own populated estates - Confirmed exemption from compulsory service - Established noble assemblies in each province

Charter of the Towns (1785)

A companion to the Noble Charter, it established: - Six categories of urban residents - Elected urban government (magistrates and councils) - Property qualifications for participation - Limited self-government for merchant and artisan classes

Cultural and Educational Achievements

The Hermitage Museum

Catherine transformed the Winter Palace’s art collection into one of Europe’s greatest museums: - 1764: Purchased 225 paintings from the Berlin merchant Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky - 1769-1772: Acquired the collection of Count Heinrich von Brühl (approximately 600 paintings) - 1772: Purchased the Crozat collection from Paris (400+ paintings) - 1779: Acquired the collection of Count Baudouin - 1781: Purchased the collection of English banker John Lyde Browne (antiquities) - 1785: Acquired the collection of Pope Clement XIV’s nephew (Raphael, Caravaggio, Guido Reni) - Total acquisitions: Over 4,000 paintings and tens of thousands of drawings, prints, and antiquities

The Smolny Institute (1764)

Founded as Russia’s first state-financed educational institution for women: - Established November 2, 1764 - Housed in the Smolny Convent (hence the name) - Initially enrolled 92 daughters of nobility - Curriculum included French, German, music, dance, law, mathematics, and domestic skills - Graduates became ladies-in-waiting and educated wives - Operated continuously until 1917

Other Educational Foundations

• Novgorod Governorate School (1776): Model secondary school
• Moscow Foundling Home (1764): Orphanage and educational institution
• St. Petersburg Foundling Home (1770): Similar institution in the capital
• Specialized schools: Mining school, medical-surgical academy, art academy expansions

Literary and Publishing Achievements

Catherine was a prolific writer: - Plays: Over 20 dramatic works, mostly comedies satirizing Russian life - Periodicals: Founded “Vsyakaya Vsyachina” (All Sorts of Things), a satirical journal - Children’s literature: Wrote fairy tales and educational texts - Political writings: The Nakaz, numerous manifestos and decrees - Memoirs: Extensive autobiographical writings (published posthumously)

Theater Development

• Commissioned the Stone Theater in St. Petersburg (1783-1786), Russia’s first permanent theater building
• Supported French and Russian theatrical companies
• Wrote plays herself and performed in private theatricals
• Established theater schools for training actors

Economic and Infrastructure Development

Agricultural Development

• Expanded Russian colonization of southern territories (New Russia)
• Encouraged foreign colonists (Germans, Greeks, Bulgarians) to settle vacant lands
• Promoted new crops including potatoes and tobacco
• Established state granaries for famine relief

Industrial Development

• Number of factories increased from approximately 1,000 to over 3,000
• Iron and copper production doubled
• Textile manufacturing expanded significantly
• Urals mining operations modernized
• State support for manufacturing through subsidies and protective tariffs

Infrastructure Projects

• Road construction connecting major cities
• Canal construction including the Tikhvin canal system
• Development of St. Petersburg as a major port
• Expansion of postal routes throughout the Empire

Military Achievements

Military Reforms

• Modernized the Russian army along European lines
• Improved training and equipment
• Created the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky Guards as elite units
• Established military schools for officer training

Naval Development

• Creation of the Black Sea Fleet (founded 1783)
• Construction of Sevastopol naval base
• Development of dockyards at Kherson and Nikolaev
• The 1770 Baltic Fleet expedition to the Mediterranean (first Russian naval presence there)

Successful Military Campaigns

• Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774: Major victories at Larga, Kagul, Chesma
• Russo-Turkish War 1787-1792: Victories at Kinburn, Ochakov, Ismail
• Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790: Defensive success against Swedish attack
• Polish interventions: Successful suppression of Polish reforms and uprisings

Diplomatic Achievements

International Recognition

• Elevated Russia to full great power status
• Established “armed neutrality” league during American Revolutionary War (1780)
• Mediated between warring European powers
• Correspondence with major European intellectuals and rulers

The Greek Project

Though never realized, Catherine’s “Greek Project” envisioned: - Recapture of Constantinople and establishment of a new Christian empire - Restoration of the Byzantine Empire under Russian protection - Expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean

While this remained aspirational, it influenced Russian foreign policy for generations.

Patronage of Arts and Sciences

Academy of Sciences

• Expanded the Imperial Academy of Sciences
• Increased funding and prestige
• Attracted foreign scholars to Russia
• Supported publications and research

Academy of Arts

• Established the Imperial Academy of Arts (1757, greatly expanded under Catherine)
• Sent Russian students abroad for training
• Commissioned public monuments and artwork
• Established art schools

Correspondence with Enlightenment Figures

• Voltaire (1763-1778): 15-year correspondence; Catherine purchased his library after his death
• Diderot: Visited Russia in 1773; Catherine purchased his library and employed him as librarian
• D’Alembert, Grimm, Melchior: Regular correspondents
• Falconet: Commissioned the Bronze Horseman monument to Peter the Great

Summary Statistics

During Catherine’s 34-year reign: - Territory added: ~200,000 square miles - Population increase: From approximately 23 million to 37 million - Number of new cities founded: Over 200 - New factories established: Over 2,000 - Artworks acquired for Hermitage: Over 4,000 paintings - Educational institutions founded: Dozens - Books published: More than in the entire previous history of Russia - Palaces and public buildings constructed: Hundreds

Technique and Style of Catherine the Great

Ruling Philosophy: Enlightened Absolutism

Catherine positioned herself as the embodiment of “enlightened absolutism” - the 18th-century political philosophy that held that a monarch ruling with absolute power could best implement rational reforms for the benefit of subjects who lacked the education or capacity for self-governance. Her approach combined:

• Intellectual engagement with Enlightenment ideas: Extensive reading of French philosophes
• Pragmatic accommodation to Russian reality: Recognition that noble support required preservation of serfdom
• Personal autocracy: Centralization of all decision-making in her person
• Theatrical display of power: Magnificent court ceremonies and patronage of arts

This philosophy distinguished her from both traditional Russian autocrats (who ruled by divine right alone) and would-be reformers (who threatened noble interests). She governed as a “philosopher on the throne,” theoretically committed to rational reform while maintaining absolute authority.

Administrative Method

Personal Governance

Catherine maintained direct control over policy through: - Daily working sessions: Rising early to review reports and draft decrees - Extensive correspondence: Thousands of letters to officials, foreign rulers, and intellectuals - Personal interviews: Regular meetings with ministers, generals, and advisors - Detailed instructions: Precise written directives for implementation of policy

Her work habits were legendary. She often began her day at 5:00 AM and worked until late evening, personally drafting decrees, reading reports, and corresponding with officials across the Empire.

Use of Favorites

Unlike her predecessors who relied on formal institutions, Catherine governed partly through a series of male favorites who combined political influence with personal intimacy:

1. Grigory Orlov (1762-1772): Helped orchestrate the coup; military and political advisor
2. Alexander Vasilchikov (1772-1774): Brief interlude between Orlov and Potemkin
3. Grigory Potemkin (1774-1791): Most significant favorite; co-ruler in all but name
4. Various lesser favorites (1791-1796): Including Zavadovsky and Zubov

These relationships provided Catherine with loyal lieutenants who owed their position entirely to her favor. Potemkin, in particular, functioned as a virtual co-ruler, managing military affairs, southern colonization, and foreign policy.

Patronage Networks

Catherine maintained power through elaborate systems of patronage: - Noble advancement: Grants of land, serfs, titles, and positions - Military promotions: Preferment for Guards officers and successful generals - Cultural support: Pensions for writers, artists, and scholars - Administrative appointments: Careful placement of loyal officials

Political Communication

The Art of Correspondence

Catherine was a master of letter-writing as a political tool: - With Enlightenment figures: Letters to Voltaire, Diderot, and others burnished her reputation as an enlightened ruler - With foreign monarchs: Diplomatic correspondence managing international relations - With officials: Detailed instructions and feedback on governance - Personal letters: Maintaining loyalty of favorites and allies

Her correspondence with Voltaire (1763-1778) was particularly significant. She purchased his library after his death and maintained a mutually flattering exchange that enhanced both their reputations.

Public Manifestos and Proclamations

Catherine used written proclamations to communicate with her subjects: - Accession manifesto (1762): Positioned herself as savior from Peter III’s tyranny - Legislative Commission summons (1766): Framed as consulting the people - Partition manifestos: Justifying territorial expansion - Anti-revolutionary proclamations: After 1789, condemning French radicalism

These documents were translated into multiple languages and distributed throughout Europe to shape opinion about her reign.

Theatrical Politics

Catherine understood the importance of spectacle in maintaining authority: - Coronation (1762): Magnificent ceremony in Moscow asserting legitimacy - Imperial progresses: Journeys through the Empire including the famous Crimean trip (1787) - Court ceremonies: Daily levees, receptions, and entertainments - Public entries: Elaborate processions into cities

These displays communicated power, wealth, and permanence to subjects and foreign observers alike.

Intellectual Approach

Reading and Self-Education

Catherine’s intellectual development was continuous and systematic: - History: Works of Russian, European, and ancient history - Political theory: Montesquieu, Locke, Beccaria, Blackstone - Philosophy: French Enlightenment thinkers, classical philosophy - Literature: French classics, contemporary works, Russian literature

She maintained detailed reading notes and engaged critically with texts, often disagreeing with authors she nevertheless found useful.

Writing Style

Catherine was a prolific writer with a distinctive style: - Clear and direct: Avoiding excessive ornamentation - Pragmatic: Focused on practical application rather than theory - Occasionally satirical: Mocking pretension and incompetence - In French or Russian: Most literary works in French; state documents in Russian

Her plays were competent if not brilliant; her political writings showed genuine engagement with ideas; her personal letters revealed wit and intelligence.

Relationship with Ideas

Catherine’s approach to ideas was fundamentally pragmatic: - She admired Enlightenment principles but adapted them to Russian conditions - She corresponded with radical thinkers while maintaining autocratic rule - She championed legal reform while expanding serfdom - She praised liberty while crushing rebellion

This apparent hypocrisy reflected the genuine tension between Enlightenment ideals and the practical requirements of ruling a vast, multi-ethnic empire with a small educated elite and a massive serf population.

Comparison with Contemporaries

Frederick II of Prussia (the Great)

Frederick was Catherine’s closest contemporary comparison: - Both “enlightened despots” who corresponded with philosophes - Both military expansionists who partitioned Poland together - Frederick was more militarily gifted; Catherine administratively more successful - Both ruled through personal autocracy - Frederick remained cynical about Enlightenment ideals; Catherine maintained genuine (if conflicted) commitment

Maria Theresa of Austria

The two most powerful women rulers of the era: - Both faced succession challenges (Maria Theresa’s was explicit in the Pragmatic Sanction) - Maria Theresa was more religious and conservative; Catherine more intellectually adventurous - Maria Theresa’s reforms were more practical and less ideologically driven - Both relied on capable ministers (Kaunitz for Maria Theresa, Potemkin for Catherine) - Both faced challenges from Prussia and the Ottoman Empire

Joseph II of Austria

Joseph visited Catherine in 1780 and admired her reforms: - Joseph was more radical in his reforming zeal - Catherine was more pragmatic and cautious - Both attempted to apply Enlightenment ideas to governance - Joseph’s reforms provoked more resistance (Belgian revolt, Hungarian nobility) - Catherine admired Joseph but considered some of his measures impractical

Louis XVI of France

The tragic contrast case: - Louis attempted limited reforms; Catherine more ambitious in theory - Both faced financial difficulties and noble resistance - Louis lost his throne and life; Catherine died in power - Catherine watched the French Revolution with horror, seeing in Louis’s fate a warning - Her reaction against French radicalism dominated her final years

Method of Rule: Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths

1. Intellectual capacity: Genuine intelligence and capacity for work
2. Political instinct: Excellent sense of timing and practical politics
3. Personal charm: Ability to win loyalty and manipulate factions
4. Pragmatism: Willingness to abandon failing policies
5. Patience: Ability to wait for favorable conditions
6. Communication skills: Effective in both written and personal persuasion

Weaknesses

1. Overreach: Greek Project and other ambitions exceeded realistic capacity
2. Inconsistency: Tension between Enlightenment ideals and autocratic practice
3. Noble dependence: Structural reliance on noble support limited reform possibilities
4. Personal involvement: Governance too dependent on her personal energy and attention
5. Succession failure: Never resolved the problem of her son Paul

Legacy of Her Methods

Catherine established a model of Russian governance that persisted until 1917: - Personal autocracy: The Emperor as ultimate source of authority - Bureaucratic administration: Professional officials implementing policy - Noble service: Landed class as administrative and military backbone - Cultural Europeanization: Adoption of Western forms to strengthen Russian power

Her methods demonstrated both the possibilities and limitations of “enlightened absolutism” - the capacity of a determined, intelligent autocrat to accomplish significant reforms, but also the structural constraints that prevented full implementation of Enlightenment ideals in a traditional society.

Personal Life of Catherine the Great

Relationships and Lovers

Catherine’s personal life has fascinated historians and the public for centuries. As a woman who exercised absolute power in a male-dominated world, her romantic relationships were politically consequential and controversial. She had numerous documented lovers throughout her life, claiming the same sexual privileges exercised by male monarchs.

Sergei Saltykov (1752-1754)

Catherine’s first significant affair was with Count Sergei Saltykov, a handsome young courtier. The relationship likely produced her son Paul (born 1754), as her marriage to Peter remained unconsummated. Saltykov was eventually sent abroad, probably at Peter’s insistence, though the affair had served its purpose in securing Catherine’s position through the birth of an heir.

Stanislaus Poniatowski (1755-1758, intermittent)

The Polish nobleman Stanislaus August Poniatowski became Catherine’s lover during his visit to Saint Petersburg. Their relationship was genuinely affectionate on both sides. Catherine later supported his election as King of Poland (1764), though political necessity eventually required her to participate in the partitions that destroyed his kingdom. They remained in correspondence until his death.

Grigory Orlov (1760-1772)

The most politically significant of Catherine’s early relationships, Grigory Orlov was a Guards officer who helped orchestrate the 1762 coup. Tall, handsome, and not particularly intelligent, Orlov remained Catherine’s official favorite for a decade. She bore him a son, Alexei Bobrinsky (later Count Bobrinsky), in 1762. Orlov’s influence peaked during the early years of her reign, though his limited political abilities eventually led to his replacement.

Alexander Vasilchikov (1772-1774)

A brief interlude between Orlov and Potemkin, Vasilchikov was a handsome but insignificant figure. Catherine treated him well but felt little genuine attachment. His replacement by Potemkin was handled with unusual tact, including generous financial compensation.

Grigory Potemkin (1774-1791)

The most important relationship of Catherine’s life was with Prince Grigory Potemkin. Their connection combined passionate love, political partnership, and genuine intellectual rapport. Potemkin was brilliant, ambitious, and eccentric - everything Orlov was not.

The exact nature of their relationship has been debated: - Possible secret marriage: Evidence suggests they may have married secretly in 1774 - Physical relationship: Became platonic after approximately 1776, possibly due to Potemkin’s health or Catherine’s changing desires - Political partnership: Remained the central relationship of both their lives until Potemkin’s death in 1791 - Emotional bond: Their letters reveal deep affection and mutual dependence

Potemkin served as co-ruler in all but name, managing military affairs, southern colonization, and foreign policy. He created the “Potemkin villages” during Catherine’s Crimean journey and died of malaria in 1791 while returning from successful negotiations.

Catherine was devastated by his death, writing that “I have lost everything that bound me to life.” She mourned him for months and never found another partner who matched his combination of abilities and intimacy.

Later Favorites (1791-1796)

After Potemkin’s death, Catherine continued to take lovers, though these relationships were increasingly perfunctory:

• Alexander Mamonov (1789-1791): Brief relationship before Potemkin’s death
• Alexander Ermolov (early 1790s): Minor figure
• Platon Zubov (1791-1796): Her last favorite, a vain 22-year-old when they met. Catherine, then 60, showered him with titles and wealth, creating resentment among courtiers. His influence was largely negative, and he was dismissed immediately after her death.

Family Relationships

Relationship with Paul (Paul I)

Catherine’s relationship with her son Paul was troubled from the start. Empress Elizabeth had removed Paul from Catherine immediately after birth, raising him according to her own ideas. Catherine saw him infrequently during his childhood and felt little maternal connection.

As Paul grew older, the relationship deteriorated: - Ideological differences: Paul was more conservative and militaristic - Personality clash: Catherine found him unstable and unsuitable to rule - Succession fears: Paul resented Catherine’s coup against his father and feared being bypassed - Grandson preference: Catherine considered naming her grandson Alexander as heir

Catherine never formally changed the succession, and Paul succeeded her in 1796. He immediately began reversing her policies and exhumed Peter III’s body to give him a state funeral beside Catherine, symbolically undoing her coup.

Other Children

• Anna Petrovna (1757-1759): Daughter, possibly by Stanislaus Poniatowski; died in infancy
• Alexei Bobrinsky (1762-1813): Son by Grigory Orlov; raised privately, later created Count Bobrinsky
• Elizabeth Grigorievna Temkina (1775-1854): Possible daughter by Potemkin; raised by a foster family; her paternity remains uncertain

Grandchildren

Catherine was genuinely devoted to her grandchildren, particularly Alexander (born 1777) and Constantine (born 1779). She took an active role in their education, hoping to mold them into ideal enlightened monarchs. Alexander eventually succeeded Paul and carried forward Catherine’s legacy in some respects.

Personal Character and Habits

Work Habits

Catherine maintained a rigorous schedule: - Rising early: Often by 5:00 or 6:00 AM - Morning work: Reviewing reports, drafting decrees, corresponding with officials - Audiences: Receiving ministers, generals, and petitioners - Afternoon: Reading, literary composition, or cultural activities - Evening: Court entertainments, theater, or intimate gatherings

Her capacity for work was remarkable and essential to her governing style. She personally drafted thousands of decrees, letters, and instructions.

Health

Catherine enjoyed generally good health throughout most of her life: - Physical vigor: Rode horses well into her 50s - Minor ailments: Occasional colds and digestive issues - Lung infection: Serious illness in 1744 during Russian language studies - Final years: Declining health after age 65, including circulation problems - Death: Stroke on November 5, 1796; died November 17 without regaining consciousness

Reading and Intellectual Life

Catherine was an omnivorous reader who maintained extensive libraries: - French literature: Preferred Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu - History: Ancient, European, and Russian history - Philosophy: Engaged seriously with Enlightenment thought - Current affairs: Newspapers and periodicals from across Europe

She annotated books extensively and engaged in intellectual debates through correspondence.

Religious Views

Catherine converted from Lutheranism to Russian Orthodoxy in 1744 and maintained outward devotion throughout her life: - Public observance: Regular church attendance, support for religious institutions - Private skepticism: Her correspondence reveals deistic rather than orthodox beliefs - Pragmatic approach: Used religion as a tool of governance while not personally devout - Church policy: Secularized church lands, reduced monastic privileges, but maintained Orthodox Christianity as state religion

Controversies and Rumors

Rumors of Death (The Horse Story)

The most persistent and false rumor about Catherine concerns her death. According to this fabrication, Catherine died while attempting sexual intercourse with a horse. This story originated with French émigrés hostile to Catherine after the French Revolution and was repeated by reactionary historians.

The truth: - Catherine died of a stroke on November 17, 1796 - She had suffered a minor stroke on November 5 - She died in her bed at the Winter Palace - The horse story is physically impossible and entirely fictional

This rumor illustrates the sexual double standards applied to powerful women and the propaganda campaigns waged against Catherine by her enemies.

The Orlov Brothers and Peter III’s Death

Questions about Catherine’s complicity in her husband’s death have persisted: - Peter III died on July 17, 1762, while imprisoned at Ropsha - Official cause: “hemorrhoidal colic” - Likely cause: Murder by the Orlov brothers, possibly with Catherine’s knowledge or tacit approval - Catherine’s response: Ordered investigation but accepted inconclusive findings; rewarded the Orlovs generously

While Catherine may not have ordered the murder, she benefited from it and made no serious effort to punish those responsible.

Pugachev and False Peter IIIs

After Catherine’s coup, multiple pretenders claimed to be Peter III, who had allegedly escaped death: - Timofei Purgin (1764): Executed - Commoner “Peter III” (1772): Executed - Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775): Led massive rebellion claiming to be Peter III; executed 1775

These pretenders threatened Catherine’s legitimacy and forced her to address the circumstances of Peter’s death, though she never admitted responsibility.

Serfdom and Social Policy

Catherine’s personal attitude toward serfdom was complex: - Enlightenment ideals: She intellectually opposed the institution - Political necessity: She expanded serfdom to secure noble support - Personal ownership: She owned approximately 500,000 serfs herself - Limited reforms: Restricted some worst abuses but preserved the system

This contradiction between ideals and actions has been much debated by historians.

Political Views and Evolution

Early Enlightenment Enthusiasm (1762-1770s)

In her early reign, Catherine was genuinely committed to Enlightenment reforms: - Legal reform through the Legislative Commission - Religious toleration for Muslims and other minorities - Educational expansion - Cultural Europeanization

Reaction to Revolution (1789-1796)

The French Revolution transformed Catherine’s political outlook: - Horrified by execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette - Abandoned reform rhetoric as dangerous - Suppressed liberal ideas in Russia - Led opposition to Revolutionary France

By her death, Catherine had become a reactionary defender of autocracy against democratic challenge, though she maintained her cultural engagement with European thought.

Final Years and Death

Catherine’s final years were marked by declining health but continued mental vigor. She worked on state affairs until her final illness and maintained her intellectual interests. Her relationship with her son Paul remained unresolved, and she died without formally changing the succession in favor of her grandson Alexander.

On the morning of November 5, 1796, she suffered a stroke while preparing for her morning routine. She never regained consciousness and died on November 17, 1796, at age 67. Her death ended the longest reign by a female ruler in Russian history and closed one of the most remarkable chapters in imperial history.

She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, where her tomb remains a major historical monument.

Legacy of Catherine the Great

Historical Impact on Russia

Territorial Expansion

Catherine’s most concrete legacy was the massive expansion of the Russian Empire: - Added approximately 200,000 square miles of territory - Secured warm-water ports on the Black Sea - Eliminated Poland as an independent state - Established Russian dominance in Eastern Europe - Created the foundations of modern Ukraine and Belarus as Russian territories

This expansion shaped Russian foreign policy for centuries. The “Near Abroad” policy of post-Soviet Russia traces its origins to Catherine’s acquisitions. Crimea, annexed by Catherine in 1783, remains a point of international contention today.

Administrative and Legal Heritage

Though her legal reforms were incomplete, Catherine established models that persisted: - Provincial administrative structure lasted until 1917 - Charter of the Nobility defined the Russian nobility’s status for a century - Concepts from the Nakaz influenced later Russian legal thought - The autocratic system she perfected remained until the Revolution

Educational and Cultural Foundations

Catherine’s cultural achievements had lasting impact: - The Hermitage: One of the world’s great art museums, founded by her acquisitions - Smolny Institute: Model for women’s education in Russia - Academy system: Expanded and professionalized - Theatrical tradition: Established Russian professional theater

Influence on Her Field: Enlightened Absolutism

Catherine represented the highest development of “enlightened absolutism,” the 18th-century political philosophy that held absolute monarchs could best implement rational reforms. Her reign demonstrated both the possibilities and limitations of this approach:

Successes

• Proved an absolute monarch could implement meaningful reforms
• Demonstrated that women could rule as effectively as men
• Showed Russia could become a European cultural center
• Established model of autocratic modernization

Failures

• Legal reform blocked by noble interests
• Serfdom expanded rather than abolished
• Enlightenment ideals compromised by political necessity
• Reforms dependent on personal energy rather than institutions

Her reign influenced subsequent rulers including: - Alexander I: Attempted similar enlightened reforms (1801-1825) - Alexander II: Emancipated serfs (1861) in fulfillment of Catherine’s unfulfilled vision - Frederick the Great: Observed and learned from her methods - Joseph II: Shared reforming ambitions, though more radical

Legacy in Political Theory

The “Enlightened Despot” Model

Catherine’s reign shaped understanding of how absolute rulers could engage with Enlightenment ideas: - Pragmatic adaptation: Adapting Western ideas to Russian conditions - Intellectual engagement: Taking ideas seriously while maintaining power - Propaganda value: Using Enlightenment rhetoric for legitimacy - Limitations exposed: Revealing the constraints on reform within autocracy

Women and Power

As one of the most successful female rulers in history, Catherine’s reign: - Demonstrated women’s capacity for governance - Established precedents for female rule in Russia - Provoked misogynistic attacks that continue in modified form - Inspired subsequent female leaders globally

Modern Relevance

Contemporary Russia

Catherine’s legacy remains contentious in modern Russia: - Positive view: Celebrated for territorial expansion, cultural achievement, Russian greatness - Revisionist view: Criticized for serfdom expansion, autocracy, Polish partitions - Putin’s Russia: Elements of Catherine’s imperial vision resonate with contemporary Russian nationalism - Cultural memory: Her image appears on currency, monuments, and popular media

Ukraine and Crimea

Catherine’s annexation of Crimea (1783) and expansion into Ukrainian territories have contemporary relevance: - Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea was explicitly compared to Catherine’s actions by Russian officials - Ukrainian nationalists view Catherine as an imperial conqueror - The historical legacy of Catherine’s expansion shapes contemporary geopolitics

Poland

The partitions of Poland remain a wound in Polish historical memory: - Catherine is viewed as the architect of Poland’s disappearance - Her alliance with Prussia and Austria against Poland established patterns of Western betrayal - Modern Polish-Russian relations are colored by this history

Lasting Contributions to Culture

The Hermitage Museum

Catherine’s art collection forms the core of the State Hermitage Museum: - Over 4,000 paintings acquired during her reign - Includes works by Rembrandt, Rubens, Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael - One of the world’s most visited museums (approximately 4 million visitors annually) - Symbol of Russian cultural achievement

Literature and Theater

Catherine’s literary efforts, while not of the highest quality, established precedents: - Demonstrated that rulers could engage in cultural production - Established Russian court theater - Modeled behavior for subsequent Russian rulers

Education for Women

The Smolny Institute and related institutions: - Established precedent for women’s higher education in Russia - Influenced 19th-century educational reform - Model for similar institutions across Europe

Reputation Through History

19th Century

• Romantic period: Viewed as symbol of absolutist excess and personal immorality
• Russian nationalists: Praised for territorial expansion, criticized for German origins
• Revolutionaries: Condemned as typical tyrant despite enlightened pretensions

Soviet Period (1917-1991)

• Early Soviet: Condemned as feudal autocrat and serf-owner
• Stalinist period: Rehabilitation as strong ruler; parallels drawn to Stalin’s industrialization
• Post-Stalin: More nuanced view recognizing achievements and limitations

Post-Soviet Period (1991-present)

• Nationalist revival: Celebrated as great Russian ruler
• Democratic critics: Condemned for autocracy and imperialism
• Academic view: Nuanced assessment recognizing complexity

Controversies That Persist

Serfdom

The central contradiction of Catherine’s reign - advocating Enlightenment ideals while expanding serfdom - remains debated: - Apologist view: She had no choice given noble power - Critical view: She chose autocracy over principle - Historical view: Structural constraints limited her options

The Polish Partitions

Questions of morality and necessity persist: - Did Catherine have legitimate security concerns? - Was the destruction of Poland justified by Realpolitik? - How should the partitions be judged by contemporary standards?

Personal Life

The sexual double standard applied to Catherine continues: - Male rulers with multiple partners are rarely condemned - Catherine’s relationships have been subject to prurient speculation - False rumors (the horse story) persist despite debunking

Complicity in Peter III’s Death

Whether Catherine ordered or merely tolerated her husband’s murder remains disputed: - Direct evidence is lacking - She benefited from and rewarded those responsible - Political necessity versus moral responsibility

Lessons from Catherine’s Reign

For Political Leaders

1. The limits of reform within autocracy: Catherine’s failure to abolish serfdom demonstrates how autocratic systems depend on key constituencies (in her case, the nobility)
2. The importance of legitimacy: Catherine’s constant need to justify her rule shaped her policies
3. Personal rule versus institutional reform: Her reforms were too dependent on her personal energy and did not outlast her

For Women’s Leadership

1. Competence transcends gender: Catherine proved women could rule as effectively as men
2. Sexual double standards: Powerful women face scrutiny men do not
3. Support networks: Catherine’s success depended on building networks of loyal supporters

For Historical Understanding

1. Complexity of historical figures: Catherine was simultaneously reformer and conservative, intellectual and autocrat, feminist pioneer and enslaver
2. Context matters: Judging 18th-century figures by 21st-century standards can be misleading
3. Unintended consequences: Her Polish partitions destabilized Europe for centuries

Conclusion

Catherine the Great remains one of history’s most fascinating and consequential rulers. Her 34-year reign transformed Russia from a significant European power into one of the dominant states of the continent. Her territorial acquisitions, cultural achievements, and administrative reforms shaped Russia’s development through the 19th century and into the modern era.

Yet her legacy is profoundly contradictory. She espoused Enlightenment ideals while expanding serfdom. She corresponded with Voltaire while crushing rebellion. She championed legal reform while partitioning Poland. These contradictions reflect both her personal complexity and the impossible position of an “enlightened despot” seeking to reform a traditional society from above.

Her influence persists in the borders of Eastern Europe, the collections of the Hermitage Museum, the concept of enlightened absolutism, and debates about women and power. Whether viewed as a great ruler who modernized Russia, an imperialist who destroyed Poland, or a tragic figure whose ideals were compromised by political necessity, Catherine the Great remains essential to understanding both Russian history and the broader history of the 18th-century world.

The designation “the Great” was applied to only three Russian rulers: Peter I, Catherine II, and later Alexander I (though Alexander’s title is less consistently used). Catherine earned this title not through military conquest alone, though she added vast territories, but through the comprehensive transformation of her empire - cultural, administrative, and geopolitical. Her reign marked the apogee of the Russian Empire as an enlightened European power, even as the contradictions of that project would eventually contribute to the revolutionary upheavals of the 20th century.

Today, Catherine the Great stands as a symbol of Russian imperial greatness, a cautionary tale about the limits of reform from above, and a reminder that history’s most consequential figures are rarely simple heroes or villains, but complex human beings whose achievements and failures continue to shape our world.