Stephen Hawking

Stephen William Hawking

Born: January 8, 1942, Oxford, England
Died: March 14, 2018, Cambridge, England
Nationality: British
Field: Theoretical Physics, Cosmology

Summary

Stephen Hawking was a British theoretical physicist and cosmologist who became one of the most celebrated scientists of the modern era. Despite being diagnosed with a terminal illness at age 21 and given only two years to live, he survived for 55 years with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), continuing to make groundbreaking contributions to theoretical physics until his death at age 76.

Hawking’s scientific work focused primarily on black holes, general relativity, and quantum cosmology. His most celebrated discovery, Hawking radiation (1974), demonstrated that black holes are not perfectly black but emit thermal radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon. This work revolutionized the understanding of black holes and established connections between general relativity, quantum mechanics, and thermodynamics.

Beyond his scientific contributions, Hawking achieved extraordinary fame as a science communicator. His 1988 book “A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes” became an international bestseller, selling more than 10 million copies and remaining on the Sunday Times bestseller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. The book introduced millions of readers to complex concepts in cosmology, making him the most recognizable scientist since Albert Einstein.

His life story—overcoming profound physical disability to make revolutionary scientific discoveries—became a symbol of human perseverance and the triumph of the human mind over bodily limitations. The 2014 biographical film “The Theory of Everything,” based on the memoir by his first wife Jane Hawking, brought his personal story to an even wider audience.

Key Facts

• Full Name: Stephen William Hawking
• Birth Date: January 8, 1942 (exactly 300 years after Galileo Galilei’s death)
• Death Date: March 14, 2018 (coinciding with Albert Einstein’s birthday and Pi Day)
• Primary Affiliation: University of Cambridge
• Most Famous Position: Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (1979-2009)
• Primary Condition: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), diagnosed 1963
• Most Famous Book: “A Brief History of Time” (1988)
• Key Scientific Contribution: Hawking radiation and black hole thermodynamics

Early Life and Education

Family Background

Stephen William Hawking was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England. His birth coincided with the 300th anniversary of Galileo Galilei’s death—a coincidence that Hawking would later note with amusement given his future career in cosmology.

His parents, Frank and Isobel Hawking, were both Oxford-educated, though the family was not wealthy. His father, Frank Hawking, was a medical researcher specializing in tropical diseases. His mother, Isobel Hawking, was one of the first female students to graduate from Oxford University, earning a degree in philosophy, politics, and economics. She later worked as a secretary and then as a tax inspector.

The family valued education and intellectual achievement above material wealth. During World War II, Oxford was considered a safe location for childbirth, which is why Hawking was born there rather than in London, where his parents lived. His father was serving in medical research in East Africa at the time of his birth.

Childhood

Hawking grew up in Highgate, London, and later in St Albans, Hertfordshire. He was the eldest of four children, with two younger sisters (Philippa and Mary) and an adopted brother, Edward. The family was considered somewhat eccentric and highly intellectual—dinner conversations often involved complex topics in science, politics, and philosophy.

As a child, Hawking showed an early interest in the workings of things. He enjoyed constructing models and elaborate games with his friends, including a miniature railway and complex board games with extensive rules. He attended Byron House School in Highgate and later St Albans School, where he developed a reputation as a bright but not particularly diligent student.

At St Albans, he formed close friendships with a group of boys who shared his interests in mathematics and science. Together with friends like John McClenahan, Hawking built a computer from clock parts, an old telephone switchboard, and other recycled components in 1958—an impressive feat for teenagers at that time.

Undergraduate Studies at Oxford

Hawking entered University College, Oxford, in 1959 at the age of 17. His father had wanted him to study medicine, but Hawking was drawn to mathematics. Since Oxford did not offer a mathematics degree at University College at that time, he chose physics instead, with a focus on theoretical physics.

At Oxford, Hawking found the work easy and developed a reputation for being lazy, spending minimal time on studies while still achieving good results. He joined the university’s boat club as a coxswain, enjoying the social aspects of university life. His final examination results placed him on the border between first-class and second-class honors, requiring an oral examination to determine his classification. The examiners reportedly recognized his intelligence and awarded him a first-class degree.

He graduated with a B.A. in Physics in 1962, having specialized in theoretical physics and cosmology. During his final year, he began experiencing symptoms of clumsiness and occasional slurred speech, though he dismissed these as temporary ailments.

Graduate Studies at Cambridge and Diagnosis

Hawking began his graduate studies at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1962, intending to study under the renowned astronomer Fred Hoyle. However, he was instead assigned to Dennis Sciama, a decision that would prove fortunate for his career, as Sciama encouraged independent thinking and connected him with other brilliant young physicists.

During his first year at Cambridge, Hawking’s physical condition deteriorated significantly. He became increasingly clumsy, fell down stairs, and had difficulty rowing. His speech became slurred, and his handwriting grew smaller and less legible. Concerned, his father took him to see a specialist.

In 1963, at age 21, Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neurone disease or Lou Gehrig’s disease in the United States. This degenerative neurological disease affects the nerve cells controlling voluntary muscles. Doctors gave him a prognosis of two years to live.

The diagnosis plunged Hawking into a deep depression. He initially felt there was no point in continuing his research or even his life. However, he met Jane Wilde, a languages student, at a New Year’s party in 1963. Their developing relationship gave him renewed determination to continue living and working despite his diagnosis.

Under Sciama’s supervision, Hawking began working on singularity theorems and general relativity, collaborating with fellow student Roger Penrose. Despite his physical decline, he completed his Ph.D. in 1966, with a thesis titled “Properties of Expanding Universes.” His work established mathematical foundations for the singularity theorems that would form the basis of his early scientific reputation.

The diagnosis and prognosis that initially seemed like a death sentence ultimately became the catalyst for extraordinary productivity. Facing limited time, Hawking threw himself into his work with unprecedented intensity, a pattern that would continue throughout his life.

Career and Scientific Work

Early Career and Singularity Theorems (1966-1974)

After completing his Ph.D. at Cambridge in 1966, Hawking began his academic career as a Research Fellow at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Despite his deteriorating physical condition, this period marked the beginning of his most productive scientific years.

Hawking’s early work focused on singularity theorems in collaboration with mathematician Roger Penrose. Their research proved that if general relativity correctly describes gravitational physics and certain energy conditions hold, then singularities—points where space-time curvature becomes infinite—are inevitable features of gravitational collapse and the Big Bang. This work established that the universe began with a singularity and that black holes contain singularities within their event horizons.

The Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems, published between 1965 and 1970, used global geometry techniques to prove these results rigorously. This work represented a significant advance in mathematical physics and established Hawking as a leading figure in theoretical physics despite his youth and disability.

Hawking Radiation (1974)

Hawking’s most celebrated scientific discovery came in 1974. While investigating quantum effects near black hole event horizons, he discovered that black holes are not completely black but emit thermal radiation due to quantum mechanical effects. This phenomenon, now known as Hawking radiation, demonstrated that black holes have a temperature and entropy proportional to their surface area.

This discovery was revolutionary because it represented the first successful combination of quantum mechanics and general relativity, pointing toward a theory of quantum gravity. It also implied that black holes could eventually evaporate completely, raising profound questions about the fate of information that falls into black holes—the famous “information paradox” that would occupy Hawking and other physicists for decades.

Hawking’s 1975 paper “Particle Creation by Black Holes” used quantum field theory in curved space-time to derive the thermal spectrum of emitted radiation. The temperature of a black hole, now called the Hawking temperature, is inversely proportional to its mass, meaning smaller black holes are hotter and evaporate faster.

Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (1979-2009)

In 1979, at the age of 37, Hawking was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University, a position previously held by Isaac Newton (1669) and Paul Dirac (1932). He held this prestigious chair for 30 years, until 2009, making him one of the longest-serving Lucasian Professors in history.

During his tenure, Hawking continued to work on fundamental questions in quantum gravity and cosmology. Despite losing his ability to speak in 1985 following a tracheotomy during a severe pneumonia episode, he adapted to using a speech synthesizer, which would become his iconic voice. His communication device allowed him to continue collaborating with students and colleagues, though at a slower pace than before.

Black Hole Thermodynamics

Building on his work on Hawking radiation, Hawking contributed to the development of black hole thermodynamics. This field treats black holes as thermodynamic systems with well-defined temperature, entropy, and other properties. The Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula, relating black hole entropy to the area of its event horizon, became a cornerstone of theoretical physics.

Black hole thermodynamics provided crucial insights into quantum gravity, suggesting deep connections between information theory, thermodynamics, and geometry. The holographic principle, which emerged partly from this work, proposes that the information content of a volume of space can be described by information on its boundary.

No-Boundary Proposal (1983)

In 1983, Hawking collaborated with American physicist James Hartle to propose the “no-boundary proposal” for the origin of the universe. Using a technique called Euclidean quantum gravity, they suggested that the universe has no initial boundary in imaginary time. In this picture, the Big Bang is not a singularity where classical physics breaks down but a smooth, finite beginning.

The Hartle-Hawking state, as it is also known, suggests that asking what happened before the Big Bang is like asking what is north of the North Pole. The proposal attempts to describe the quantum state of the entire universe and remains influential in quantum cosmology, though it remains controversial and difficult to test observationally.

Later Research Work

Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Hawking continued to work on fundamental problems in physics, including:

Top-Down Cosmology: Working with Thomas Hertog, Hawking proposed a “top-down” approach to cosmology in 2006, suggesting that the universe’s history is determined by its final state, working backward from the present rather than forward from initial conditions.

Information Paradox: Hawking engaged in decades-long debates about whether information is preserved when matter falls into black holes. Initially betting that information was destroyed, he famously lost bets to other physicists and eventually conceded that information might be preserved, publishing papers in 2005 and 2014 that attempted to resolve the paradox.

Quantum Gravity: He continued working on approaches to combining general relativity with quantum mechanics, contributing to string theory, loop quantum gravity, and other programs seeking a theory of everything.

Other Academic Positions

After stepping down as Lucasian Professor in 2009, Hawking became the Dennis Stanton Avery and Sally Tsui Wong-Avery Director of Research at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge, a position he held until his death. This role allowed him to continue research and mentoring without administrative burdens.

Throughout his career, Hawking supervised numerous Ph.D. students and postdoctoral researchers who went on to distinguished careers in physics. His research group at Cambridge remained an important center for work in general relativity and quantum cosmology.

Major Achievements and Awards

Scientific Breakthroughs

Hawking Radiation (1974)

Hawking’s most significant scientific contribution was the theoretical discovery that black holes emit thermal radiation, now universally known as Hawking radiation. Using quantum field theory in curved space-time, he demonstrated that quantum effects near black hole event horizons cause the emission of particles with a thermal spectrum.

This discovery established that black holes have a temperature (the Hawking temperature) and entropy (the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy), fundamentally changing the understanding of these objects from purely gravitational phenomena to thermodynamic systems. The formula relating black hole entropy to the area of the event horizon became one of the most important results in theoretical physics, pointing toward deep connections between quantum mechanics, gravity, and information theory.

The discovery of Hawking radiation created the field of black hole thermodynamics and provided crucial insights for developing a theory of quantum gravity. It remains one of the most celebrated theoretical physics results of the 20th century.

Singularity Theorems with Roger Penrose (1965-1970)

Hawking’s collaboration with mathematician Roger Penrose produced the famous Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems. These theorems proved that under reasonable physical conditions, singularities are inevitable in gravitational collapse and at the beginning of the universe.

Their work established that: - Black holes must contain singularities within their event horizons - The universe began with a singularity (the Big Bang) - These results hold assuming general relativity is correct and certain energy conditions are satisfied

The mathematical techniques they developed, based on global differential geometry, became standard tools in general relativity and gravitational physics. This work earned Penrose the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2020, and Hawking would likely have shared it had he been alive.

Black Hole Thermodynamics

Building on the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula and Hawking radiation, Hawking contributed to establishing black hole thermodynamics as a rigorous field. This framework treats black holes as thermodynamic systems with well-defined temperature, entropy, free energy, and other thermodynamic quantities.

The four laws of black hole mechanics, developed with James Bardeen and Brandon Carter in 1973, established analogies between black hole physics and thermodynamics that proved to be exact relationships after the discovery of Hawking radiation. This work suggested deep connections between gravitation, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics that continue to guide research in quantum gravity.

No-Boundary Proposal (1983)

The Hartle-Hawking no-boundary proposal, developed with James Hartle in 1983, provided a quantum mechanical description of the universe’s origin. Using Euclidean quantum gravity techniques, they proposed that the universe has no initial boundary in imaginary time, with the Big Bang emerging as a smooth, finite beginning rather than a singular point where physics breaks down.

This proposal attempts to answer fundamental questions about why the universe exists and why it has the properties it does. While difficult to test observationally, the no-boundary state remains influential in quantum cosmology and has stimulated extensive theoretical research.

Literary Achievement

A Brief History of Time (1988)

Hawking’s 1988 book “A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes” represents one of the most successful works of popular science ever published. The book explains complex concepts in cosmology, including the Big Bang, black holes, and the nature of time, in accessible language for general readers.

Publication records and achievements: - Over 10 million copies sold worldwide - Translated into more than 40 languages - 237 consecutive weeks on the Sunday Times bestseller list (a British record) - Over 4 years on the New York Times bestseller list

The book’s success transformed Hawking into a global celebrity and introduced millions of people to cosmology and theoretical physics. Its famous opening question—“What do we know about the universe, and how do we know it?”—encapsulated Hawking’s gift for making profound scientific questions accessible to everyone.

Other Books

Hawking authored or co-authored several other successful books: - “The Universe in a Nutshell” (2001) - A visually oriented exploration of cosmology - “The Grand Design” (2010, with Leonard Mlodinow) - Discussion of the laws of the universe - “My Brief History” (2013) - An autobiographical memoir - “Brief Answers to the Big Questions” (2018) - Published posthumously, addressing major scientific and philosophical questions

Major Awards and Honors

Hawking received numerous prestigious awards throughout his career:

Scientific Awards

• Adams Prize (1966) - Cambridge University mathematical prize
• Eddington Medal (1975) - Royal Astronomical Society
• Maxwell Medal and Prize (1976) - Institute of Physics
• Heineman Prize (1976) - American Physical Society
• Hughes Medal (1976) - Royal Society
• Albert Einstein Award (1978) - One of the most prestigious awards in theoretical physics
• RAS Gold Medal (1985) - Royal Astronomical Society’s highest honor
• Dirac Medal (1987) - Institute of Physics
• Wolf Prize in Physics (1988) - Often considered second only to the Nobel Prize
• Prince of Asturias Award (1989) - Spain
• Andrew Gemant Award (1998) - American Institute of Physics
• Naylor Prize (1999) - London Mathematical Society
• Lilienfeld Prize (1999) - American Physical Society
• Albert Medal (1999) - Royal Society of Arts
• Copley Medal (2006) - Royal Society’s highest honor, awarded for outstanding achievements in science

Civilian Honors

• Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) (1982) Companion of Honour (CH) (1989) - For services to the Queen
• Presidential Medal of Freedom (2009) - United States’ highest civilian honor
• BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2015)

Special Recognitions

• Fellow of the Royal Society (1974) - Elected at age 32, an unusually young age
• Member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (1986)
• Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
• Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences (USA)
• Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Influence on Physics

Hawking’s work revolutionized the understanding of black holes, transforming them from theoretical curiosities into thermodynamic objects that emit radiation and eventually evaporate. His research established connections between previously disparate fields—general relativity, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and information theory—that continue to guide research in quantum gravity.

The information paradox raised by Hawking’s work remains one of the central problems in theoretical physics, driving research in string theory, holography, and the nature of space-time. His black hole thermodynamics results suggested the holographic principle, which posits that the information in a volume of space can be described by data on its boundary—a principle now widely accepted in quantum gravity research.

Though he never won a Nobel Prize (primarily because his most famous prediction, Hawking radiation, has not yet been experimentally confirmed), his scientific influence is comparable to that of Nobel laureates, and his work continues to shape theoretical physics decades after its publication.

Scientific Approach and Personal Style

Geometric Intuition

Hawking’s approach to physics was characterized by exceptional geometric intuition. Unlike many theoretical physicists who rely primarily on algebraic calculations, Hawking thought visually and geometrically about space-time, black holes, and singularities. This geometric approach was particularly well-suited to general relativity, where the mathematics of differential geometry plays a central role.

His collaboration with mathematician Roger Penrose exemplified this approach. Penrose brought rigorous mathematical techniques from differential geometry and topology, while Hawking contributed physical intuition and the ability to visualize complex space-time structures. Together, they developed the singularity theorems that established the inevitability of singularities in gravitational collapse and cosmology.

Hawking’s geometric thinking allowed him to solve problems that others found intractable. He often described being able to “see” solutions in his mind’s eye, visualizing curved space-time and the behavior of quantum fields near black holes without needing to perform detailed calculations first.

Collaboration with Mathematicians

Throughout his career, Hawking worked closely with mathematicians, recognizing that rigorous mathematical formulation was essential for advancing physics. His early collaboration with Penrose established a pattern of interdisciplinary work that continued throughout his career.

Notable mathematical collaborators included: - Roger Penrose: Singularity theorems and global geometry - George Ellis: Co-author of “The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time” (1973), the definitive mathematical treatment of singularity theorems - James Hartle: No-boundary proposal for quantum cosmology - Thomas Hertog: Top-down cosmology and late-career work on the multiverse

These collaborations produced work that was both physically insightful and mathematically rigorous. Hawking’s ability to communicate physical intuition to mathematicians and translate mathematical results into physical understanding was a key element of his success.

Mental Calculation and Memory

As his physical condition deteriorated and he lost the ability to write, Hawking developed extraordinary capacities for mental calculation and memory. Unable to use pen and paper for complex calculations, he trained himself to hold extensive mathematical expressions in his mind, manipulating them mentally.

This capacity for mental calculation became legendary among his colleagues. Hawking could work through complex tensor calculations and geometric arguments entirely in his head, a skill that most physicists develop only partially and rely on written calculation to supplement.

His memory for scientific literature was equally remarkable. He maintained an encyclopedic knowledge of papers in general relativity and quantum field theory, able to recall specific results and equations without reference materials.

Scientific Communication and Storytelling

Hawking possessed a rare gift for scientific communication. He could explain complex concepts in clear, accessible language without sacrificing scientific accuracy. This skill was evident in his scientific papers, which were typically well-written and pedagogically valuable, as well as in his popular books and lectures.

His approach to scientific explanation emphasized: - Analogy and metaphor: Using familiar concepts to illuminate abstract physics - Historical context: Explaining how scientific ideas developed over time - Personal narrative: Sharing his own intellectual journey and struggles with concepts - Humor: Using wit to make difficult material more engaging

In lectures, Hawking developed a distinctive style, using his speech synthesizer to deliver carefully crafted presentations that combined scientific content with humor and philosophical reflection. His public lectures routinely drew overflow audiences worldwide.

Willingness to Admit Mistakes

Hawking was notable for his willingness to publicly acknowledge errors and change his position when evidence or better arguments emerged. This intellectual honesty was demonstrated most famously in the black hole information paradox debates.

Initially, Hawking argued that information falling into black holes was permanently destroyed, violating quantum mechanics’ principle of unitary evolution. He made several famous bets with other physicists, most notably with John Preskill and Kip Thorne, wagering that information was lost. Over time, as theoretical developments suggested otherwise, Hawking conceded the bets and published papers attempting to show how information might be preserved.

This willingness to admit mistakes and revise opinions is a hallmark of scientific integrity. Rather than defending his earlier positions out of pride, Hawking followed the evidence and theoretical developments wherever they led, even when it meant acknowledging that he had been wrong.

The Iconic Voice

Hawking’s speech synthesizer became an integral part of his public identity. After losing his natural voice in 1985 following a tracheotomy, he began using a speech synthesizer manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation. The device had an American accent, which Hawking kept throughout his life despite being offered upgrades with British accents.

He explained his attachment to the voice: “I keep it because I have not heard a voice I like better and because I have identified with it for so long.” The voice became iconic—immediately recognizable worldwide and associated with his particular combination of intelligence, wit, and perseverance.

Over the years, the technology evolved from a hand-operated clicker to an infrared sensor mounted on his glasses that detected cheek movements, allowing him to select words from a computer screen. Despite the slowness of this communication method (eventually reduced to about one word per minute), Hawking continued to lecture, write, and communicate with colleagues.

Sense of Humor

Hawking’s sense of humor was a defining characteristic, evident in his scientific writing, public lectures, and personal interactions. He enjoyed wordplay, irony, and self-deprecating jokes about his condition and his celebrity status.

Examples of his humor include: - Describing his condition as “a bit of a nuisance” in the context of his scientific work - Jokes about his synthesized voice and the advantages of not having to give live lectures - References to his bets with other physicists and his willingness to lose them - Appearances in popular media where he poked fun at his own image

This humor served multiple purposes: it made him more approachable to the public, helped him cope with his physical limitations, and demonstrated that serious scientific work could coexist with levity and enjoyment.

Visual Thinking Despite Limitations

Despite severe physical limitations that prevented him from writing or drawing, Hawking maintained his visual approach to physics throughout his life. He described being able to visualize four-dimensional space-time geometries, quantum fields, and abstract mathematical spaces entirely in his mind.

This capacity for mental visualization was particularly remarkable given that most physicists rely heavily on blackboards, paper, and computer visualizations to work through complex problems. Hawking’s ability to manipulate complex geometric structures mentally allowed him to continue doing creative theoretical physics long after he lost the ability to write equations.

His visual thinking style influenced his scientific preferences, drawing him toward geometric approaches to quantum gravity and away from more algebraic formulations like string theory, though he maintained interest in and contributed to string-theoretic approaches as well.

Personal Life

First Marriage: Jane Wilde (1965-1995)

Meeting and Marriage

Stephen Hawking met Jane Wilde in 1963, shortly after his diagnosis with ALS. At the time, Jane was a languages student at Westfield College, London. Their meeting at a New Year’s party came during Hawking’s darkest period—he had been diagnosed with a terminal illness and given two years to live. Jane’s presence and their developing relationship gave him renewed determination to live and work.

They became engaged in 1964 and married on July 14, 1965. Jane has described their early marriage as intensely romantic, bound together by the challenge of Hawking’s illness and their shared determination to defy medical prognosis. She committed to caring for him while pursuing her own academic career in medieval Spanish poetry.

Family Life

The couple had three children:

Robert Hawking (born 1967) - The eldest child, Robert became a software engineer. As a child, he helped his father with physical tasks as Hawking’s condition deteriorated. He later worked at Microsoft and has maintained a relatively private life.

Lucy Hawking (born 1970) - A journalist and author, Lucy has written extensively for children about science, often collaborating with her father. She co-authored the “George’s Secret Key to the Universe” series with Stephen Hawking, which introduces children to cosmology through adventure stories.

Timothy Hawking (born 1979) - The youngest child, Timothy has worked in marketing and brand development. He was too young to remember his father before the tracheotomy that removed his natural voice and has described their communication challenges.

Strained Marriage and Caregiving

As Hawking’s fame grew and his physical condition deteriorated, the marriage became increasingly strained. Jane shouldered enormous caregiving responsibilities while raising three children and pursuing her own academic career. She has written candidly about the exhaustion, isolation, and emotional toll of caring for a severely disabled husband.

In her memoir “Music to Move the Stars” (later revised as “Travelling to Infinity”), Jane described how Hawking’s scientific success and growing celebrity status created distance in their relationship. She felt increasingly marginalized as he became focused on his work and public persona. The intensity of caregiving left little room for their relationship as a married couple.

Jane turned to her faith as a source of strength; she was a devout Christian, while Hawking was an atheist. This religious difference created additional tension in their marriage, as did disagreements about the children’s upbringing.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Jane developed a close friendship with Jonathan Hellyer Jones, a choir director and organist. This relationship, with Hawking’s knowledge, provided emotional support for Jane while she continued caring for her husband. Hellyer Jones helped with Hawking’s care and became part of the household.

Second Marriage: Elaine Mason (1995-2006)

Relationship and Marriage

In 1985, following a life-threatening bout of pneumonia that required a tracheotomy, Hawking required round-the-clock nursing care. Elaine Mason was one of the nurses assigned to him. She was the former wife of David Mason, the engineer who had adapted Hawking’s speech synthesizer to be portable and mounted on his wheelchair.

Over the following years, Hawking and Elaine developed a relationship. Jane and Stephen separated in 1990, and their divorce was finalized in 1995. Hawking married Elaine Mason on September 16, 1995.

Controversy and Allegations

The second marriage was controversial from the start. Hawking’s children reportedly disapproved and became estranged from their father during this period. There were tensions between Elaine and Hawking’s family, staff, and colleagues.

More seriously, there were allegations of abuse. In the early 2000s, police investigated claims that Elaine had physically abused Hawking, including allegations of bruising and injuries. Hawking denied these allegations and refused to press charges. The investigation was eventually dropped without charges being filed.

Hawking and Elaine divorced in 2006, after 11 years of marriage. Following the divorce, Hawking reconciled with his children and Jane, and his relationship with his family improved significantly in his final years.

Religious Views and Atheism

Hawking was a committed atheist who frequently discussed his views on religion and the existence of God. He believed that scientific understanding could explain the universe without invoking a creator.

In “A Brief History of Time,” he famously wrote that if we discover a complete theory of the universe, “it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason—for then we would know the mind of God.” Many readers interpreted this as suggesting belief in God, but Hawking clarified that he used “God” as a metaphor for the laws of physics.

Later in life, he became more explicit about his atheism. In “The Grand Design” (2010), he wrote: “Because there is a law such as gravity, the universe can and will create itself from nothing… It is not necessary to invoke God to light the blue touch paper and set the universe going.”

His atheism created tension with Jane, a devout Christian, particularly regarding questions of mortality and meaning. Hawking found meaning in scientific understanding and human connection rather than religious faith.

Disability and Advocacy

Hawking became a prominent advocate for disability rights and accessibility. He demonstrated that severe physical disability need not prevent intellectual achievement and productivity. Throughout his life, he used his platform to advocate for:

• Accessible technology: He relied on increasingly sophisticated assistive technology, from his early manual wheelchair to computerized communication systems controlled by minimal muscle movements.

• Disability rights: He spoke publicly about the importance of removing barriers for disabled people in education and employment.

• Medical research: He supported research into ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases, though he was cautious about raising false hopes for cures.

Hawking avoided portraying himself as a victim or seeking pity. He rarely complained about his condition publicly and focused instead on what he could accomplish within his physical limitations. This attitude made him an inspirational figure for many people with disabilities.

Health Crises

Throughout his life with ALS, Hawking experienced numerous health emergencies that he survived against medical expectations:

1985 Pneumonia: While visiting CERN in Geneva, Hawking contracted pneumonia that became life-threatening. He was placed on a ventilator and given the option to discontinue life support. Jane refused, and he underwent an emergency tracheotomy that saved his life but permanently removed his ability to speak naturally.

Subsequent Infections: Hawking experienced recurrent chest infections and pneumonia throughout his life. Each episode was potentially fatal given his respiratory muscle weakness.

2009 Health Scare: He was hospitalized with a respiratory infection that raised serious concerns, but he recovered and continued working.

Despite these crises, Hawking consistently defied medical expectations. The progression of his ALS was unusually slow, and he survived 55 years after diagnosis when most patients die within 3-5 years.

Final Years and Death

In his final years, Hawking continued working from his home in Cambridge, supported by a team of nurses and assistants. He remained intellectually active, publishing papers, giving interviews, and engaging with scientific colleagues.

He developed close relationships with his children and maintained cordial relations with Jane, who remained involved in his care. His 75th birthday in 2017 was marked by celebrations at Cambridge, where he reflected on his unexpected longevity and continued scientific contributions.

Stephen Hawking died peacefully at his home in Cambridge on March 14, 2018, at the age of 76. The date coincided with Albert Einstein’s birthday and Pi Day (3/14), a fitting coincidence for a physicist who spent his life studying the mathematical laws of the universe.

His ashes were interred in Westminster Abbey on June 15, 2018, between the graves of Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin—a final honor recognizing his place among the greatest scientists in history.

Legacy and Impact

Scientific Legacy

Revolutionary Understanding of Black Holes

Hawking transformed black holes from theoretical curiosities into thermodynamic objects governed by quantum mechanical laws. His discovery of Hawking radiation fundamentally changed how physicists understand these objects, establishing that:

• Black holes emit thermal radiation and can eventually evaporate completely
• Black holes possess temperature and entropy, making them thermodynamic systems
• Information falling into black holes creates profound questions about quantum mechanics and gravity

The Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula, relating black hole entropy to horizon area, became one of the most important clues for developing a theory of quantum gravity. It suggested deep connections between gravity, thermodynamics, and information that continue to guide theoretical physics research.

The black hole information paradox that emerged from Hawking’s work remains one of the central problems in theoretical physics, driving research in string theory, holography, and the fundamental nature of space-time. The holographic principle, which posits that three-dimensional space can be described by information on a two-dimensional boundary, emerged partly from attempts to resolve this paradox.

Quantum Cosmology

Hawking’s work on quantum cosmology, particularly the no-boundary proposal developed with James Hartle, provided a framework for understanding the origin of the universe using quantum mechanics. While difficult to test observationally, this work established quantum cosmology as a legitimate field of research and stimulated extensive theoretical development.

The approach of treating the entire universe quantum mechanically, rather than just subatomic particles, opened new avenues for investigating the Big Bang and the fundamental nature of space and time.

Status Among Physicists

Within the physics community, Hawking is regarded as one of the most important theoretical physicists of the late 20th century. While some of his speculative work (such as certain aspects of quantum cosmology) remains controversial, his core contributions—Hawking radiation and the singularity theorems—are universally accepted as major achievements.

Roger Penrose was awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for work on black holes that included the singularity theorems developed with Hawking. Many physicists believed Hawking would have shared this prize had he been alive, as his contributions were equally essential to the work being recognized.

Cultural Impact

Science Communication

“A Brief History of Time” fundamentally changed science publishing and public engagement with science. The book demonstrated that complex scientific concepts could be explained to general audiences without sacrificing accuracy or depth. It created a new genre of bestselling popular science books and inspired a generation of scientists to communicate their work to the public.

The book’s success—10+ million copies sold, translations into more than 40 languages, and years on bestseller lists—proved there was a massive audience eager to understand fundamental questions about the universe. Publishers and scientists took notice, leading to increased investment in science communication.

Pop Culture Icon

Hawking became the most famous scientist since Albert Einstein, achieving a level of celebrity unprecedented for a theoretical physicist. His recognizable appearance—seated in his wheelchair using his speech synthesizer—and his wit and personality made him a natural fit for popular media.

Notable appearances included:

• Star Trek: The Next Generation (1993) - Playing poker with Data, Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein on the holodeck
• The Simpsons (multiple episodes) - Lending his synthesized voice to animated versions of himself
• Futurama - Appearing as a floating head in a jar
• The Big Bang Theory (multiple episodes) - Playing himself, trading barbs with Sheldon Cooper
• The Theory of Everything (2014) - The biographical film based on Jane Hawking’s memoir, with Eddie Redmayne winning an Academy Award for portraying Stephen

These appearances, along with countless documentaries, interviews, and references in popular culture, made Hawking a household name and symbol of scientific genius worldwide.

Symbol of Perseverance

Hawking’s life story—overcoming a terminal diagnosis and profound physical disability to make revolutionary scientific discoveries—became a powerful symbol of human resilience and determination. He demonstrated that:

• Physical limitations need not prevent intellectual achievement
• Assistive technology can enable severely disabled individuals to contribute fully to society
• A positive attitude and sense of humor can coexist with serious physical challenges
• The human mind can triumph over bodily limitations

His example inspired countless people with disabilities to pursue education and careers they might have thought impossible. Disability advocates point to Hawking as proof that accessibility accommodations and assistive technology enable contributions that would otherwise be lost.

Influence on Public Understanding of Science

Hawking played a crucial role in making cosmology and theoretical physics accessible to the general public. Through his books, lectures, and media appearances, he introduced millions of people to concepts including:

• The Big Bang and the expanding universe
• Black holes and their properties
• The nature of time and its direction
• The search for a unified theory of physics
• The relationship between science and philosophy

He demonstrated that asking big questions about the universe is not merely the province of specialists but is relevant to everyone’s understanding of existence and humanity’s place in the cosmos.

Awards and Memorials

Following his death, numerous honors and memorials have recognized Hawking’s contributions:

Honors and Tributes

• Westminster Abbey Interment (2018) - His ashes were placed between Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin, recognizing his status among history’s greatest scientists
• Royal Mint Coin (2019) - The first British coin commemorating a scientist, featuring a black hole design
• Royal Mail Stamps (2019) - A set of stamps featuring Hawking and black hole imagery
• NASA Tributes - Space agencies worldwide acknowledged his contributions to theoretical astrophysics
• Cambridge Tributes - The University of Cambridge established the Hawking Papers archive and various memorials

Continuing Research

Research inspired by Hawking continues across multiple fields: - Hawking Radiation Research: Physicists continue searching for observational evidence of Hawking radiation, with analog systems in laboratories providing indirect confirmation - Black Hole Thermodynamics: The field Hawking helped establish remains central to quantum gravity research - Information Paradox: Theoretical physicists continue working to resolve the paradox Hawking identified, with recent developments suggesting information is indeed preserved

The Hawking Papers and Archive

Hawking’s papers, drafts of books, correspondence, and other materials were archived at Cambridge University Library and made available to researchers. The archive includes: - Drafts of “A Brief History of Time” with editorial changes - Scientific papers and correspondence with leading physicists - Personal papers documenting his life and career - Photographs and memorabilia

This archive ensures that future historians and scholars can study both his scientific contributions and his remarkable life in detail.

Philosophical Legacy

Hawking’s work and writings addressed profound philosophical questions:

The Nature of Time: His research on the arrow of time and the beginning of the universe challenged philosophical assumptions about temporal existence.

The Role of Humanity: He frequently reflected on humanity’s place in the universe, arguing that understanding the cosmos gives human life meaning and purpose.

Science and Religion: His explicit atheism and arguments against the need for a creator sparked ongoing debates about the relationship between science and religious belief.

The Future of Humanity: In his later years, he warned about threats including climate change, artificial intelligence, and nuclear war, advocating for space colonization as insurance for humanity’s long-term survival.

Assessment

Stephen Hawking’s legacy spans multiple domains—scientific, cultural, and inspirational. As a scientist, he made fundamental contributions to theoretical physics that continue to shape research. As a communicator, he brought cosmology to millions of readers and viewers. As a human being, he demonstrated extraordinary resilience in the face of overwhelming physical challenges.

He is widely regarded as the most famous scientist of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, achieving a level of public recognition and admiration that no theoretical physicist since Einstein has matched. His life and work continue to inspire scientists, students, and people facing challenges of all kinds.

The ultimate measure of his legacy may be the countless young people who chose careers in science because of his example—proof that one person’s determination to understand the universe and communicate that understanding can change the world in ways that extend far beyond any single scientific discovery.